自我东方化的表现(5篇)

篇一：自我东方化的表现

　　作者：阿里夫·德里克[1];曾艳兵[2]作者机构：[1]美国杜克大学;[2]青岛大学出版物刊名：东方论坛：青岛大学学报页码：32-38页主题词：后现代;指涉性;“后学”;“自我东方化”摘要：1999年,王逢振和谢少波合作,以通讯方式采访了一些西方理论家和批评家.本文是德里克对其中部分问题作出的回答,包括现代主义的指涉性、理论的可译性、后现代主义与后殖民主义、东方主义与"自我东方化"等问题.文中观点体现了作者个人的独特视角.全文三万余字,这里发表的是其中的一部分,原文为英文,为了方便读者阅读,译为中文发表.

篇二：自我东方化的表现

　　提要:辜鸿铭的《论语》翻译,被译者赋予了塑造中国文化身份的使命。为了使译作具有完成其文化使命的能力,译者采用了完全贴近英语语言规范和西方文化价值体系的极端归化翻译策略。然而,正是由于这一翻译策略的采用,使译作带有强烈的自我东方化倾向,并由此消解了翻译的目的,失去了完成文化使命的可能性。

　　关键词:文化身份;极端归化;自我东方化;文化使命

　　一、引言

　　作为中国古典哲学的核心著作和中国古代文化的主要经典之一的《论语》的外译,自19世纪以来一直是译者关注的焦点之一;迄今为止,已经出版了多种语言的译本近50个。在众多的《论语》译本中,辜鸿铭的译本无疑是一种值得关注的翻译现象。辜鸿铭的《论语》译本于1898年由上海别发洋行(KillyandWalshLimited)出版。当时的中国,在东西方政治和经济的交锋中完全处于弱势,从而在文化上也彻底失去自信。在西方主导的政治、经济和文化格局中,中国文化已经丧失了表述自我身份的能力,成为西方文化体系表述的对象。在西方的表述中,中国文化是一种“停滞的”、不发展的幼稚的文化(黑格尔,2001:117-137);中华民族则成为了“不道德的”、“堕落的”、“不可取的”种族(周宁,1999:646)。西方对中国的否定和蔑视,无疑是辜鸿铭《论语》翻译的主要动机:译者正是要通过对《论语》这一代表中华文化精华的典籍的翻译,抵抗西方话语体系中被故意贬低的中国文化形象,重塑中国文化身份。也就是说,对作为译者的辜鸿铭而言,他的《论语》翻译,其主要预期功能是塑造中国文化身份,使西方人认识中国文化的真正价值,并由此改变西方人对中国文化的否定态度。在《论语》翻译中,译者采用了针对其预期文化目的的翻译策略。辜鸿铭的翻译策略是否能顺利实现译者翻译的文化目的?笔者拟通过对辜鸿铭《论语》翻译策略及其客观效果的分析,揭示译本中强烈的自我东方化倾向及其翻译策略与预期目的之间的根本矛盾,并最终揭示自我东方化翻译对翻译目的的消解。

　　二、自我东方化的目的与手段的矛盾性

　　所谓“自我东方化”,是指在世界文化格局中,凭借近代工业化率先建立起工业文明的西方,凭借其经济强势,以自身的价值体系为核心构建起世界秩序体系,并在经济、政治、文化三方面将这一体系推向世界其它地区;在这一世界秩序框架之内,西方成为建构身份的话语生产的主导者和主要生产者。西方在建构自我身份的同时,也掌握了非西方地区建构身份的话语权,并以此控制着整个世界的话语生产过程,并由此建立起一系列以东西方二元对立为核心的话语体系。在这一话语体系中,西方俨然成了文明、自由、进步的世界中心;而东方则被制造成了“具有某种怪异性的、一成不变的、低劣的、被动的文化他者”(周宁,2004:序11),成了野蛮、落后、专制的代名词。与此同时,处于经济弱势的其它地区,在被迫接受西方主导的世界政治经济文化秩序的同时,也被迫以西方为参照,在以西方为主导的文化框架内表述自身。这种思维和身份表述的西方主导性,成为东方地区近现代文化发展的主要特征之一。

　　东方地区身份表述的西方主导性成为兴起于20世纪后半期的东方主义的关注焦点之一。德里克的《后革命氛围》等著作中多次描述了东方地区的“自我东方化”问题。他认为:欧洲的东方主义者和亚洲知识分子在东方主义的制造中存在着“共谋”(德里克,1999:279);这种“共谋”,在东方自身而言,就是“自我东方化”。中国形象学者周宁对“自我东方化”进行了较为系统的归纳和总结。他认为自我东方化

　　包括三个方面:11认同东西方二元对立与西方中心主义的世界观念秩序,认同为此世界观念秩序奠基的进步/停滞、自由/专制、文明/野蛮的二元对立的价值体系与西方现代进步、自由、文明的优越性,认同现代西方文化霸权下自身低劣的他者地位;21在西方中心主义世界观念秩序中开始自我批判与文化改造的历程,努力地“去东方化”。这种“去东方化”包括两种极端倾向:一是彻底否定自身传统,彻底西方化;二是在西方的世界观念秩序中发挥所谓“东方传统”。值得注意的是,这两种倾向中都同时包含着认同因素与反抗因素;31“去东方化”不仅构筑了

　　一种“东方”国家与西方的关系,还同时构成“东方”国家之间的关系,其过程中还包含着“东方”内部的“彼此东方化”的问题,“东方”国家中究竟谁更“东方”,谁比较“西方”,也是“东方”国家现代性自我认同的根据(周宁,2006:7)。从这一分析中不难看出,在西方主导的世界政治、经济和文化格局中,东方必须以西方为参照,在西方的话语体系下才能书写自身;在这一前提下,无论是“彻底西方化”还是“在西方秩序中发挥东方传统”,都已经失去了话语书写的独立性,也失去了独立构建自我身份的能力。

　　以上所分析的非西方自我批判和文化改造的两种极端倾向,实际上也代表了东方地区在两极话语体系下的文化身份塑造和文化发展的两种主要模式:去东方化和发挥自身传统。前者实际上就是彻底否定自身的文化传统,主动将自身融入西方体系之中;后者则是企图在西方世界的观念秩序中宣示自身的价值,以此对抗西方对东方的审视和否定,最终达到构建自身文化身份的目的。这两种方式看起来截然相反,但实质上都是东方地区在东西二元对立的文化框架之内用以重构自我身份的途径和方式,其目的则都是构建东方自身的文化身份。然而,这种以自我东方化为主要特征和方式的文化发展和文化身份构建方式,自身却包含着显而易见的矛盾性,即手段与目的的自相矛盾性。去东方化企图通过融入西方来构建自身,最终构建的并非自我身份,而是成为西方的延伸,彻底失去自身的传统;在西方体系内保持和发挥自身传统则要强调自身相对于西方具有某种超越性,要么寻求自身与西方的共性;但由于过分着力于寻求与西方之间的相同点,反而忽略了自身独特价值的发挥,因而同样无法建立起真正的自我身份。由此看来,以自我东方化作为构建自身文化身份的途径,由于手段与目的相互矛盾,其文化身份构建的目的最终必然落空。

　　三、辜译论语的翻译策略及译本的客观效果

　　弗米尔(HansVermeer)等德国目的论学派译论家认为:翻译作为一种行为具有目的性(Vermeer,2000:221;Nord,1997/2001:19)。既然翻译行为具有目的性,译者整个的翻译活动,包括翻译策略的制定必然受翻译目的的控制。因此,对译者翻译策略进行考察,结合对译本客观效果的分析,才能更好地理解译者翻译的文化目的以及译作是否真正实现了译者的文化目的。本文拟从语言策略和文化策略两方面对辜鸿铭《论语》翻译的翻译策略进行分析。

　　11语言策略

　　此处的语言策略,是指译者在译作中对源语语言特征和源语文本的语言风格的处理方式。译者在其翻译中可以选择贴近源语的语言特征和源语文本的语言风格,也可能选择使译作贴近目的语的语言特征,或者改变源语文本的语言风格。文本的语言特征涉及语言的句式、人称、语态、语篇衔接和连贯方式等多方面的质的规定性(连淑能);文本的语言风格则包括词汇、句式、语境和连贯等多方面(Leech&Short,1981/2001:75-80)。本文囿于篇幅,难以对文本进行全面的综合性考察;由于语言特征和文体特征二者都涉及了文本的句式,因此本文拟随机从《论语》第三篇第七章、第十九篇第一章作为语料,对译作与原文进行句式对比分析:例(1)原文:子曰:“君子无所争。必也射乎!揖让而升,下而饮。其争也君子。”(见《论语》第三篇第七章)译文:Confuciusremarked,“Agentlemannevercompetesinanythinghedoes,—exceptinarchery.Buteventhen,whenhewinshecourteouslymakeshisbowbeforeheadvancestomakehisplaceamongthewinners;and,whenhehaslosthewalksdownanddrinkshiscupofforfeit.Thus,eveninthiscaseofcompeti2tion,heshowshimselftobeagentleman.”(辜鸿铭1898:16)例(2)棘子成曰:君子质而已矣,何以文为?子贡曰:惜乎,夫子之说君子也,驷不及舌。文犹质也,质犹文也,虎豹之鞹,犹犬羊之鞹。(见《论语》第十二篇第八章)译文:AnofficerofacertainstateononeoccasionremarkedtoadiscipleofConfucius,saying:“Awiseandgoodmanwantsonlythesubstance;whyshouldhetroubleaboutthestyle?”

　　“Iamsorrytohearyoumakesuchastatement,”repliedConfucius’disciple,“Whatyouwouldsayistrue;but,statedinthatway,itisimpossibleformennottomisunderstandyourmeaning.Tobesure,thestylecomesoutofthesubstance,butthesubstancealsocomesoutofthestyle.Forthesubstanceofatigeroraleopardisthesameasthesubstanceisthesameasthesubstanceintheskinofadogorasheep.”(辜鸿铭,1898:99)例(3)原文:“子张曰:士见危致命,见得思义,祭思敬,丧思哀,其可已矣。”(见《论语》第十九篇第一章)译文:AdiscipleofConfuciusremarked,“Agentlemaninpresenceofdangershouldbereadytogiveuphislife;inviewofpersonaladvantage,heshouldthinkofwhatisright;inworship,heshouldbedevoutandserious;inmourning,heshouldshowheartfeltgrief:theaboveisaboutthesumofthedutiesofagentleman.”(辜鸿铭,1898:169)在例(1)中,原文包含4个单句。其中,前三个单句共用一个主语“君子”;译文在句子的总体结构上包括三个单句,其中,原文的第一和第二个单句被处理为一个单句加一个状语性介词结构;原文第三个单句包含两个并列连动式,在译文中被处理为两个并列的主从复合句。原文第四个单句为主语加形容词的主谓结构,在译文中被处理为一个表示时间的短语和一个单句的形式.此外,在行文上,译者大量使用了代词he(his,himself),共计11处;代词的大量使用,使译文更加贴近英语句式。原文中及“揖让而升”、“下而饮”等两种礼节,在译文中仅保留了第一种“揖让而升”,而第二种礼节被译者误解为“失败后饮下罚酒”①。类似的句式处理在例(3)中也十分明显。在例(2)中,原文的“质”指的是“好的内在本质”,或者好的品质;“文”则指“外在的文采(仪节、形式)”,主要指人的外在表现;“鞹”则是指“去掉毛的兽皮”。这三个地方在译文中分别被处理为“substance”、“style”和“skin”。其中,“substance”主要指“实质、物质”,很少涉及到“人的品质”;“style”在描述人时主要指“风格”、“风度”、“派头”、“头衔”、“个性”、“方式”,基本不包含“人的外在”;“skin”则完全不包含“去掉毛”这个意义。译文对这三个地方的处理充分体现了对原文的过度简化,以至于原文的原意在译文中显得十分模糊。从上列语言材料的对比可以看出:辜鸿铭《论语》翻译基本采用了主从结构为主的复杂句式,具有明显的形合特征;大量使用了代词、连接词等连接手段,以增加行文的连贯性;词汇选择多以普通词汇为主,以增加译文的流畅性和透明性。总体来看,译作明显采用了贴近英语语言规范的译法。

　　21文化策略

　　此处的文化策略,是指译者对出现于源语文本中的代表源语文化的概念、风俗习惯、行为方式等文化成分的处理方式。译者对文化成分的处理同样可以大致分为贴近源语文化体系和贴近目的语文化体系两种方式。辜鸿铭《论语》翻译的文化策略主要体现在两个方面。其一,尽可能去除原著中的专有名词,以消除英语读者的陌生感和怪异感(辜鸿铭,1898:序Vii-Viii)。主要体现如下:原作中孔子及众多弟子中,除孔子的名称被译为“Confucius”以外,弟子中只有子路和颜回二人的名字得以保留,其它弟子的名字一概被概括为“OneofConfucius’disciple”;其他众多

　　人名中,也只有少部分得以保留,多数的人名都采用了省略或解释的处理方法;原作中的地名,除少数得以保留,采用音译之外,其它的多数地名在译文中被省略,或给予解释;在提到一些重要人物的时候,在西方文化中寻找“类似”人物。例如,对颜回的注释为“theSt.JohnoftheConfuciusgospel,—apure,heroic,idealcharacter,thedisciplewhomtheMasterloved”,把颜回比作耶稣的门徒圣约翰;对子路的注释为“TheSt.PeteroftheConfuciangospel;abrave,latrepid,impetuous,chivalrouscharacter”,把子路比作耶稣门徒圣彼得;对武王的注释为“thewarriorkingortheconqueror:theSolomonofChinesehistory”,把武王比作基督教文化中的所罗门王,等等。其二,译者为

　　了解释原著中所涉及的文化现象或历史阶段,通过大量注释,引述西方文化体系中“类似的”文

　　化现象或历史阶段,以凸显东西方文化之间的共性。例如,对

　　齐国和鲁国的注释为“theFranceoftheChinesehistory,andtheEnglandofChinesehistory”,将齐国比作中国历史上的法国,而将鲁国比作中国历史上的英国;对《诗经》的注释为“NowcalledtheCanonofPoetry,oneoftheso-calledfiveclassics,intheBibleofChina”,把儒家经典比作是“中国的圣经”。其三,在涉及原著中某些观点时,通过注释,引用歌德、伏尔泰、丁尼孙、贺拉斯等西方学者、诗人、哲学家、政治家的“类似”观点,并在二者之间寻找相似之处。其四,一些典型的中国文化概念在译作中处理为典型的西方文化概念。例如,“入太庙,每事问”被译作“WhenheattendedtheserviceattheGreatCathedral(ancestraltempleofthereigningprince),healwaysenquiredwhathewoulddoateverystageoftheservice”(本条引文中的粗体为本文作者添加),其中,“太庙”这一典型的中国文化形象被阐释为基督教文化中的“大教堂”;“天命”被译作“thelawsofGod”;“圣人”被译作“holymen”,等等。由此可以看出,译者的文化策略与其语言策略一样,也表现出了彻底贴近西方文化体系的极端归化倾向。

　　四、辜译论语的自我东方化及其对翻译目的的消解

　　译者在从事翻译活动过程中所持的文化目的必然在译者对待源语文化和译语文化的态度中反映出来,并渗入译者的整个翻译策略,最终必然在译作中有所体现;而译者的文化态度通常都是其文化目的的必然体现,二者之间则有着明显的一致性和同一性。作为活跃在清末民初中国学术界、教育界和政坛的“奇人”,辜鸿铭从他的有生之年开始,就一直受到国内学术界、文化界的大量关注;在国外学术界和文化界也曾经产生过不小的影响。尽管在二十世纪初曾经因为其对待中国传统文化的极端保守意图被陈独秀、蔡元培、胡适等人的批判,但随着学界对他的认识不断全面、深入,最终承认他是“东方文明的发言人”(严光辉,1996:序4)。关于辜鸿铭的文化态度,根据现有传记和其它研究资料可以归纳如下:1.对中西两种文化都有着深刻的了解和研究;2.对西方文化持总体批判态度,对以儒家思想为核心的带有浓厚封建色彩的中国传统文化持全盘接受的态度,甚至带有文化我族主义特征。具体说来,他是希望以其对中西两种文化的了解,站在中国文化的立场,批判西方资本主义文明所体现出的肤浅和自大,从而捍卫中国文化,救中国文化于危难。尽管他未能认识到他所承继的封建思想中不乏糟粕,“把文明的余渣也当作进补汤药端给社会”(严光辉,1996:序.6),但毋庸置疑的是:他的文化意图仍然是以中国文化为立足点,通过自己的文化活动,试图扩大中国文化的影响。《论语》翻译是辜鸿铭实现其文化目的的重要手段。在TheDiscoursesandSayingsofConfucius(辜鸿铭译《论语》)的序言中,译者很明确地表明了他从事《论语》翻译的文化目的。他首先批评了英国汉学家里雅各的论语译本,认为里雅各“缺乏文学教养,缺乏批判才能,在论语翻译中从头至尾缺乏文学敏感性”,而里雅各的《论语》译本“所展现的中国人的智慧和道德品质,对西方人来说显得离奇怪异”(辜鸿铭,1898:序VII),而他的翻译则“以普通读者为阅读受众”,“消除英语读者的陌生感和怪异感”,最终目的是“使英国人改变他们头脑中以往形成的对中国人的先入之见,并由此改变他们对中国人和中国民族的态度”(辜鸿铭,1898:序X)。不难看出,辜鸿铭的论语翻译中贯穿着他一贯的文化目的,那就是致力于使西方对中国文明的精髓有更深刻更全面的认识,并以此提高中国的国际地位,实现中国文化身份重构。作为实现其文化目的的手段的《论语》翻译,其本身则体现出了明显的自我东方化倾向。译者所采用的翻译策略,其目的就是要证明中国文化具有不亚于西方文化的价值:西方文化体系所具有的思想、价值体系和思维方式,在东方文化体系中也能够得到印证;反之,正因为东方文化中并不缺乏西方文化体系所具有的思想、价值体系和思维方式,东方文化才具有其存在价值。换言之,东方文化之所以具有其存在价值,其原因是因为它与西方文化体系之间存在很大程度的相似性。这一带有浓厚自我东方化色彩的文化态度,使辜鸿铭《论语》翻译从头到尾都忙于调动各种翻译手段寻求东方文化与西方文化的相似性,并企图以此来证明东方文化的价值,并由此实现文

　　化身份构建的文化目的。

　　此处不难看出,辜鸿铭《论语》的文化策略实际上包含着一个简单的逻辑思路:中国文化的存在价值和存在理由,体现于中国文化与西方文化之间的相似性。这一逻辑思路所包含的错误同样是不言自明的:一种文化与另一种文化之间存在相似性,并不必然说明比较文化具有的文化价值;要证明比较文化具有文化价值,还必须包含一个前提,即基准文化具有超出其它文化体系的文化价值。上述逻辑推理过程可以用下列公式来表示:大前提:西方文化体系具有超出其它文化体系的优越性和独特价值;小前提:中国文化与西方文化之间存在着明显的相似性;结论:中国文化具有存在价值也就是说,辜鸿铭《论语》翻译的文化策略,其文化立场的实质无异于首先承认了西方文化体系具有超越中国文化体系的价值。尽管这种承认并非作为

　　“中国文化代言人”的辜鸿铭有意为之。辜鸿铭《论语》翻译所包含的上述逻辑错误,其直接体现就是这一翻译中所存在的主要问题:过分专注于证明东方文明因相似于西方文化体系而具有存在价值,反而忽略了中国文化相对于任何其它文化体系的独特价值。同时,译者采用的证明中国文化价值的方法本身也存在着根本性的谬误:中国文化的价值所在,其根本原因并非在于它与西方文化的相似性,恰恰在于辜鸿铭《论语》翻译中所忽略的文化独特性。正是由于译者忽略了对源语文化独特性的传达,使译作所达到的客观效果与翻译的目的背道而驰:翻译的最终目的在于将源语文化的独特价值传递到译语文化之中;这一目的的实现,必须是以传达源语文本的独特性为条件的;一旦以牺牲源语文化的独特性、寻找源语文化与译语文化相似性作为翻译的文化策略,必然导致源语文化的真正独特的价值丢失,其最终结果只能是翻译的文化目的落空。正是由于辜鸿铭在其《论语》翻译中所持有的自我东方化立场及其难以避免的手段与目的之间的矛盾性,使其《论语》翻译本身消解了译者的文化目的;译作不仅未能真正使西方认识中国文化的独特价值,反而成为西方文化和价值体系制造东方话语的共谋;西方读者从这一译本中读到的,与其说是中国儒家哲学的精髓和独特价值,不如说是西方文化价值的普适性的异域证据。

　　五、典籍外译的文化目的与翻译策略的关系

　　当今学界对中国典籍外译给予了越来越多的关注,而译者在典籍外译的文化目的也成为人们研究的核心问题之一。所谓典籍外译的文化目的,实际上就是指译者在中国典籍外译实践中所持有的文化立场。具体说来,典籍外译的文化立场主要包括两种:一是以文化交流为主要目的,向世界其它地区传播中国文化;二是引证东方文化,并用于构建为西方所用的“中国形象”(周宁,2004)。一般认为:前者主要是为了尽量真实地反映中国文化的水平,因此一般采用贴近源语文化的翻译策略;而后者主要是为了挪用中国文化,以证明西方文化的优越性,因此通常采用贴近目的语文化和价值体系的翻译策略(黎土旺,2007:53)。然而,本文通过对辜鸿铭《论语》英译的文化倾向的分析,对照译者赋予这一翻译的文化立场,发现二者不仅不同一,而且还截然相反:译者的文化立场是为了向世界译介将真正的中国文化的精髓,使西方世界认识中国文化的价值;但译作本身则体现出了贴倾向。在典籍外译批评中,译者的文化立场诚然是不可忽视的因素,但决定译作是否真正能起到尽量真实再现源语文化的,则是译作的文化倾向。而决定译作的文化倾向的,则是译者所采用的翻译策略。换言之,作者在确定其主观文化立场之后,还必须选择相应的翻译策略,以保证其文化立场的实现。否则,即便译者抱着传播源语文化的良好愿望,也可能使译作因翻译策略不当而无法实现其文化目的。

　　参考文献:[1]黑格尔.历史哲学[M].王造时译.上海:上海书店出版社,2001.[2]周宁.2000年西方看中国[M].北京:团结出版社,1999.[3]周宁.契丹传奇[Z].北京:学苑出版社,2004.[4]阿道夫·德里克.后革命氛围[M].王宁等译.北京:中国社会科学出版社,1999.[5]周宁.亚洲或东方的中国形象:新的问题与论域[J].人文杂志,2006(6).

　　[6]Vemeer,HansJ.SkoposandCommissioninTranslationalAction[C]//LaurenceVenuti.TheTranslationStudiesReader.FirstpublishedbyRoutledge,London,2000.[7]Nord,C.TranslationAsaPurposefulActivity:FunctionalApproachesExplained[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,1997.[8]连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社,1993.[9]Leech,G.andShort.TheStyleofFiction[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2001.[10]TheDiscourseandSayingsofConfucius[Z].trans.GuHongming.Shanghai:KillyandWalshLtd.,1898.[11]严光辉.辜鸿铭传[M].海口:海南出版社,1996.[12]黎土旺.文化取向与翻译策略[J].外语与外语教学,2007(7).

篇三：自我东方化的表现

　　东西方的“自我”差异

　　“我是谁？”这是一个亘古不变之问，一代代的哲学家、科学家都在思索这个问题，这个问题也困扰着我们每一个人。作为东方文化下成长起来的中国人，你是如何认识“自我”的呢？东西方文化中“自我”这一概念又有哪些异同呢？

　　独立性自我与互依性自我

　　在认知领域，科学家们常使用“自我参照加工”和“其他参照加工”的比较，来探讨“自我”对人类认知的影响。研究发现，在通常情况下，与“自我参照”有关的信息，会得到优先加工——即人们对与自己关系密切的信息加工速度更快。

　　在我们的常识中，西方文化更强调个体的独立性，重视自我认同，因此研究者将这种自我认知称为“独立性自我”。而东方文化更强调基本的社会联接，特别是与家庭成员之间的紧密关系，科学家把这种文化背景下产生的自我称为“互依性自我”。东方人会对重要的他人信息更为敏感，并且对他们倾注的注意和对自己的同样多。目前，这种跨文化差异已经得到了不少科学研究的证实。

　　有研究者发现，英国人对自我面孔的识别优势要显著高于中国人。在大脑的活动方面，中、英两组也表现出相反的模式：英国小组在判断自己的面孔时表现出深度加工，而中国小组则是在判断熟悉面孔（朋友面孔）时加工更深，即倾注了更多的注意。

　　与此同时，研究者对这种在自我参照中存在的跨文化差异，又进行了进一步研究。在同时引入“他人参考”的条件下，研究者发现了一个有趣的现象。在对中国个体的研究中，与“自我”及“母亲”有关的记忆测试中，个体表现一样好；而在西方国家进行的测试则表明，与“自我”有关的词语记忆成绩最好，而与“母亲”有关的词语的记忆成绩则明显较差。这一结果说明，在东方文化背景下，个体的自我概念是更为广泛的。

　　这种文化比较研究的结果一经发表，便引起了很多科学家的重视，于是一些科学家开始通过行为实验及脑成像的方法，展开了更深入的研究，从而有了更多的新发现。

　　自我面孔识别的差异

　　识别面孔是人类建立社会关系的基础，我们甚至有特异性的脑区专门负责面孔识别。该脑区在看到面孔时活动最强，在看到其他东西（如风景或者房子）时，激活水平比较低。在婴幼儿时期，我们最先能够记得妈妈或其他抚养者的面孔，这符合进化的原则。此外，识别自我面孔的能力也在婴幼儿时期发展起来，研究表明，婴儿在出生第二年就能够区分镜子前的自我面孔。

　　通常情况下，我们对自己面孔的识别，会优于对其他面孔的识别，即识别速度更快。但是北京大学韩世辉教授的研究发现，这种与自我相关的加工优势，会受到社会情境的影响。

　　在韩世辉的研究中，被试者为在读研究生，实验要求他们完成一个“面孔朝向判断”，面孔图片里既有自己导师的面孔图片，也有实验室其他老师的面孔图片，同时也可能出现自己的照片。结果发现，学生看到自己的照片比看到实验室其他老师的照片反应要快，这和预期相符合。但是，令人有点惊讶的是，他们看到自己导师的照片反应更快！同时，如果个体越担心导师在日常学习中注意到自己缺点，这种反应时差异（识别自我面孔与识别导师面孔相比较）就会更大。

　　研究者指出，在中国的文化背景下，导师的权威身份对学生的自尊会有较大的影响，甚至会改变“自我概念”在认知系统中的“地位”。

　　东西方的自我概念

　　最能体现“自我”本质的应该是自我概念。自我概念涉及到一个人如何看待自己，通常情况下与自我相关的信息能够得到优先加工，个体对于和自我有关的词语的记忆成绩也会更好，这一现象被称为“自我参照效应”。

　　研究者通过比较人们在“自我参照”和“他人参照”条件下的脑

　　激活情况，来确定与自我概念相关的脑区。实验发现，大脑背外侧前额叶多与执行控制等认知活动有关，而内侧前额叶则在自我相关材料的加工中表现出活跃状态，这说明自我概念在大脑的认知系统中，的确有着不一样的地位。

　　以脑激活作为标准，中国与丹麦的研究者进行了合作。丹麦被试者和中国被试者的文化差异是否也会通过脑激活水平反映出来呢？

　　这次研究中，心理学家把“自我”分成了不同的成分，包括个人的物质属性、社会属性和人格属性。研究者的实验材料选择的是一系列自我属性，比如物质属性方面有瘦弱、黑头发等；社会属性方面如房东、教授；人格属性如勤奋、自私。被试者除了判断这些词语是否和自己一致外，同时也要判断这些词语是否与其他人（比如社会公众人物）一致。

　　脑成像研究的结果发现，在上述提到的3种属性判断中：丹麦个体的自我加工优势均高于中国个体——即丹麦组在内测前额叶脑活动水平更高，而这一脑区和自我概念加工最为密切。而中国组在加工社会属性时，在大脑颞顶联合区的活动水平更高。颞顶联合区位于颞叶和顶叶的交界处，在我们试图去理解他人的观点时，该脑区会有较高的活动水平，同时该脑区也部分参与自我概念的加工。实验还发现，个体的“文化互依性”越强，颞顶联合区越活跃；而这种互依性越强，内侧前额叶的活动越弱，这说明脑区激活上的差异可能与文化背景有关。

　　探讨了东西方文化关于“自我”的差异，你是不是也想知道自己对“自我”到底了解多少呢？不妨写下以“我是——”开头的句子，完成一个小学时已经开始学习的句子完成任务，比如“我是认真的”；当你完成20个句子时，便会对自己有一个大致的了解。当然，如果你身边有来自其他国家的人，那就比较一下你们的看法，看看到底有多大差异吧。

　　读书笔记：

　　读完此文以后，你是否觉出中国人为什么关系学盛行、性格软弱、喜欢君主统治、乐于做奴隶的原因了呢？那么怎样去改变他呢？

篇四：自我东方化的表现

　　学校代码

　　*****

　　学

　　号

　　************

　　分

　　类

　　号

　　I106密

　　级

　　硕

　　士

　　学

　　位

　　论

　　文

　　论张爱玲自译作品的自我东方化倾向

　　学

　　位

　　申

　　请

　　人

　　陈会琴

　　指

　　导

　　教

　　师

　　舒奇志

　　教授

　　学

　　院

　　名

　　称

　　外国语学院

　　学

　　科

　　专

　　业

　　英语语言文学

　　研

　　究

　　方

　　向

　　文化研究与翻译

　　二零一一年六月六日

　　Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translatedWorks

　　Candidate

　　ChenHuiqin

　　Supervisor

　　Prof.ShuQizhi

　　College

　　CollegeofForeignLanguages

　　Program

　　EnglishLanguageandLiterature

　　Specialization

　　CulturalStudiesandTranslation

　　Degree

　　MasterofArts

　　University

　　XiangtanUniversity

　　Date

　　June6,2011湘潭大学

　　学位论文原创性声明

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　　DescriptiveChineseAbstract

　　摘

　　要

　　张爱玲是中国现代史上的一位传奇人物，她不仅创作了大量文学作品，也翻译了不少著作。国内外许多专家学者主要偏重于对张爱玲文学成就的研究，而对其译者身份和译作的研究直到近几年才引起关注。到目前为止，有关这方面的研究成果多局限于对她翻译成就的概括性介绍，或只是从杂合、女性主义、接受美学和意识形态等视角去分析其翻译文本，对于张爱玲作为译者独特的文化身份及其翻译的后殖民语境关注不够，从而忽视了张爱玲自译的自我东方化倾向。

　　在后殖民理论中，自我东方化是指一些东方文化精英分子往往认同西方文化的优越性和自身文化的卑劣性，甚至在他们的作品中通过简单化、概括化和夸张等手法来巩固西方对东方的刻板印象。自我东方化影响着译者的文化身份，同时也会在翻译中留下痕迹，这主要从翻译文本的选择和翻译方法的采用两方面体现出来。本文试图以后殖民翻译理论为指导，以张爱玲自译为研究对象，从翻译语境、文化身份、自译文本选择、自译目的以及方法的采用等方面论述其自我东方化倾向的原因及其表现。

　　本文的主要内容包括三章。第一章从翻译语境和文化身份方面探讨张爱玲自译的自我东方化倾向的原因，并指出这是中西方权力不平等、赞助者美国驻香港新闻处以及张爱玲本人的文化身份的自我东方化倾向影响的结果。第二章讨论张爱玲自译文本选择的自我东方化倾向。张爱玲的翻译文本主要表现了两个主题：性变态的中国女人与被“阉割”的中国男人；专制暴力的中国。她的自译文本再现了西方对中国神秘、落后、堕落和暴力的刻板印象以及西方人对中国政治体制和中国共产党持有的批判和鄙夷态度，其理由在于只有表现中国的东方“他者”形象的文本才能够引起西方读者的窥视和阅读欲望。第三章引用具体例证考察分析张爱玲自译目的的自我东方化倾向以及实现这一目的的翻译方法，认为为了凸显和渲染中国文化的滑稽、堕落和停滞，张爱玲多采用直译、增译和随意改写的翻译方法。与此同时，为了扫除西方读者的阅读障碍和提高文本的可读性，她又采用文化置换的翻译方法来传达原文的内容。

　　本文从翻译研究的后殖民视角捕捉到了张爱玲作为自译者的独特文化身份。通过考察其自译作品的自我东方化倾向，本文揭示出张爱玲通过自译文本的选择以及翻译方法的采用来迎合西方对中国的刻板印象与印证西方文化的普适性和优越性，也证明了在后殖民语境下翻译不是一种透明和平等的文化活动。

　　关键词：自译；自我东方化；文化身份；文本选择；翻译目的I

　　EnglishAbstract

　　Abstract

　　ZhangAilingwasalegendaryfigureinChinesemodernhistory.Shenotonlywrotenumerousworks,butalsotranslatedarelativelylargenumberofworks.Researchersandexpertsathomeandabroadmainlyfocusonherliteraryachievements.Onlyinrecentyearsdidacademiccirclesbegintopayattentiontoheridentityasatranslatorandhertranslatedworks.Uptillnow,researchesonhertranslationeithercenteronanintroductionofhertranslationaccomplishments,oranalyzehertranslatedworksfromtheconceptofhybridity,femaletranslationtheory,receptiontheoryortheperspectiveofideology.However,thepostcolonialcontextofherself-translationaswellasheruniqueculturalidentityasatranslatordoesnotreceiveitsdueattention,consequentlyself-orientalizationinherself-translatedworksisneglected.

　　Inpostcolonialtheory,self-orientalizationreferstotheidentificationwithsuperiorityoftheOccidentalcultureandinferiorityoftheOrientalculturebysomeOrientalélite,whoevenconfirmtheOccidentals’prototypeimageoftheOrientbysimplification,generalizationandexaggerationintheirworks.Self-orientalizationinfluencestranslators’culturalidentity,andleavestracesintranslation,whichcanbereflectedfromtheselectionofsourcetextsandtheadoptionoftranslationapproaches.Fromthepostcolonialperspectiveoftranslationstudies,thethesisaimstoexpoundcausesandmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sself-translatedworksthroughanalyzingthesocialcontext,herculturalidentity,self-translationtextselection,self-translationpurposesandapproaches.

　　Themainbodyofthethesisisdividedintothreeparts.PartOneprobesintocauseswhichcontribute

　　toself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sself-translatedworksintermsofthesocialcontextandculturalidentity,pointingoutthatitisresultedfromtheinfluencesofpowerimbalancebetweenChinaandtheWest,theUnitedStatesInformationAgency(thepatronage)andself-orientalizationinherculturalidentity.PartTwodiscussesZhangAiling’sself-translationtextselection.Inherchoiceofthesourcetexts,ZhangAilingmainlyselectedtextsthatrepresentthepervertedChinesewomenand“castrated”Chinesemen,andtextsofadespoticChina.Herself-translatedtextsreflecttheWesterners’stereotypedimpressionsofamystic,backward,depravedandviolentChinaaswellastheirbiasedanddisdainfulattitudesII

　　EnglishAbstract

　　towardsChinesepoliticalsystemandChineseCommunistParty,becauseonlytheOriental“Other”

　　imageofChinacouldsatisfytheWesterners’

　　voyeuristicdesireandarousetheirinteresttoread.PartThreeexaminesself-orientalizationinherself-translationpurposesandadoptionoftranslationapproachesbyanalyzingtheconcreteexamples.Inordertorepresentandexaggeratethealienation,inferiorityandweirdnessofChineseculture,ZhangAilingadoptedliteraltranslation,additionandrewriting.Meanwhile,sheusedculturaltranspositiontoexpresstheoriginalcontentwiththepurposeofremovingcomprehensionobstaclestotheWesternreadersandincreasingreadability.

　　Fromthepostcolonialperspectiveoftranslationstudies,thethesiscapturesZhangAiling’suniqueculturalidentityasaself-translator.Andbyinvestigatingself-orientalizationinherself-translatedworks,thethesisrevealsthatZhangAilingconformedtotheWesterners’stereotypedimageofChinaandconfirmeduniversalityandsuperiorityoftheWesternculturethroughtheselectionofself-translationworksandtheadoptionoftranslationapproaches,andprovesthattranslationisnotatransparentandequalculturalundertakinginthepostcolonialcontext.

　　Keywords:self-translation;self-orientalization;culturalidentity;translationtextselection;translationpurposesIII

　　ContentsContentsDescriptiveChineseAbstract...........................................................................................I

　　EnglishAbstract

　　..................................................................................................................II

　　Introduction

　　...........................................................................................................................1Chapter1Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasa

　　Translator

　　.....................................................................................................11.1TheSocialContextforZhangAiling’sSelf-orientalization......................11.1.1TheConstraintsofPowerImbalance.................................................111.1.2TheInfluenceofPatronage...............................................................131.2ManifestationsofSelf-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentity...151.2.1IdentificationwithInferiorityofChineseCultureandSuperiorityoftheWesternCulture..........................................................................16Chapter2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection.......................................................................................................222.1SelectionofTextsofPervertedChineseWomenand“Castrated”ChineseMen............................................................................................................232.2SelectionofTextsofAutocraticChina......................................................21.2.2ConstructionofChinaastheOriental“Other”inHerWorks...........1Chapter3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　..........................................................................................313.1FittingintheWesterners’PrototypeImageofChina................................323.1.1RepresentingaDepravedandPrimitiveChinabyLiteralTranslation.....32IV

　　Contents3.1.2MagnifyingtheNegativeAspectsofChineseCulturebyAddition......343.1.3RidiculingandMarginalizingChinesePeoplebyRewriting............43.2ConfirmingUniversalityoftheWesternCulturebyTransposition...........413.3CateringtotheWesterners’SenseofCulturalSuperioritybyDeletion....45Conclusion

　　...........................................................................................................................4Notes

　　......................................................................................................................................52WorksCited

　　........................................................................................................................53Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................5InformativeChineseAbstract

　　......................................................................................5RésuméandPublicationssinceEnteringtheProgram

　　.....................................62V

　　Introduction

　　IntroductionZhangAiling张爱玲

　　(1920-1995),aprominentandlegendaryfigureinChinesemodernliteraryhistory,gainedbothfameandwealthsoonafterthepublicationofherfirstcollectionofshortstoriesRomance(《传奇》),in1944.Asweknow,theperiodfrom1943to1945markedthemostimportantperiodforherliterarycreation,whenmostofherwellreceivedbookswereproduced.However,herfamewasinterruptedbyChinesepeople’striumphintheWarofResistanceagainstJapanesein1945.DuetoherapoliticalstanceintheWarofResistanceagainstJapaneseandhermarriagewithHuLancheng胡兰成,anotoriouspropagandistforWangpuppetgovernment,shehadtoleaveShanghaiforHongKongin1952.CommissionedbytheUnitedStatesInformationAgency(abbreviatedtoU.S.I.Ahereafter),shebegantotranslateAmericanliteratureintoChinese.Takeforexample,MarjorieK.Rawlings’

　　TheYearlingwastranslatedintoXiaolu(《小鹿》),ErnestHemingway’sTheOldManandtheSeaintoLaorenYuhai(《老人与海》),RalphWaldoEmerson’sThePortableEmersonintoTheSelectionofEmerson(《爱默森文选》),WilliamVanO’Connor’s“Introduction”

　　into“Xu”

　　(序),HenryDavidThoreau’s“MemoriesofWinter”into“DongtiandeHuiyi”(冬天的回忆),WashingtonIrving’s“TheLegendofSleepyHollow”into“HeadlessKnight”(无头骑士),TennesseeWilliams’TheGlassMenagerieintoLiuliji(《琉璃集》)andsoon.Shealsoself-translatedherEnglishnovelsintoChinese,includingtranslationof“StaleMates”into“WusiYishi”《五四遗事》,TheRice-SproutSongintoYangge(《秧歌》)andTheRougeoftheNorthintoEmbitteredWomen(《怨女》).InadditiontotheseEnglish-Chinesetranslationworks,shetranslatedherownChineseworksintoEnglish.Forexample,LoveinRedLand(《赤地之恋》)wastranslatedintoTheNakedEarth,“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”

　　(桂花蒸

　　阿小悲秋)into“Shame,Amah!”,“Jinsuoji”(金锁记)into“TheGoldenCangue”,“Deng”(等)into“LittleFingerUp”,etc..

　　AlthoughZhangAilingmadegreatcontributionstotranslation,onlyinrecentyearsdidscholarsgraduallyshowtheirinterestinhertranslation.Theresearchcanbegroupedintotwomaincategories.ThefirstcategorymakesanintroductionofZhangAilingasatranslatorandhertranslatedworks,andbelievesthatsheisanoutstandingtranslator.Representative1IntroductionresearchcanbefoundinTranslationandContextuality(《翻译与脉络》)byShanDexing单德兴

　　(2007),“HarmonizationofMultifacetedFactors:aResearchonTranslationWorksofZhangAiling”byYangXue杨雪

　　(2007),and“AStudyonZhangAilingasaTranslator”byMaRuofei马若飞

　　(2007).ShanDexingusesachapterentitled“EileenChangasaChineseTranslatorofAmericanLiterature”todiscussherChineseversionsofAmericanliteratureandpointsoutthatshemadesomemistakesinhertranslationsuchasmistranslation,omissionandaddition.Inaddition,heelaboratesthatZhangAiling’stranslationwassubjecttotheColdWarmentality.Healsocontributestothestudyofhertranslationbyaddingtwoinformativelists,namelythelistofZhangAiling’sEnglish-ChinesetranslationworksandthelistofZhangAiling’sChinese-Englishtranslationworks.Incontrast,YangXue,throughqualitativeandquantitativeanalysis,holdstheviewthatharmonizationofmultifacetedfactorsisZhangAiling’stranslation

　　principle.MaRuofeielaboratesonZhangAiling’stranslationaltalentsandpractice,comparesherwithVladimirNabokovintermsofself-translation,andanalyzeshowideology,powerdiscourse,andpatronageexertedinfluencesonhertranslation.ThesecondcategoryisresearchonZhangAiling’stranslatedworksfromdifferentangles.Forexample,ChenJirong陈吉荣

　　(2007)studiestranslationcharacteristicsof“TheGoldenCangue”

　　inthelightofontology,expoundingthatZhangAilingadoptedthetranslationstrategyofforeignizationfromtheangleofChineseculture,attachedgreatimportancetothesourceworks,andshoweddistinctlyherfemalegenderstandpoint.OtherscholarslikeTangRen唐韧

　　(2008)andRuanGuanghong阮广红

　　(2009)carryoutresearchinto“TheGoldenCangue”,statingthatZhangAilingtookintoconsiderationreaders’horizonofexpectation,andadheredtothereader-focusedprinciple.Inaddition,somethesesapplyfemaletranslationtheory,hybridity,translator’ssubjectivity,transitionalintertextualityandideologytoZhangAiling’stranslationstudy.①

　　TakeDengLijuan’s邓丽娟

　　(2007)“AStudyontheInterventionistFeministStrategiesinEileenChang’sTranslations”

　　forexample,thethesisanalyzeshowZhangAilingusedinterventionistfeministstrategiessuchas“hi-jacking”,prefacingandsupplementingtomanifestherfeministthought.ItcanbeseenthatstudiesofZhangAiling’stranslationeithercenteronextra-textualanalysisfromamacroscopicview,orfocusoninner-textualanalysisfromamicroscopicview.However,thepostcolonialcontextofherself-translationaswellasheruniquecultural2Introductionidentityasatranslatordoesnotreceiveitsdueattention;consequentlyself-orientalizationinherself-translatedworksisneglected.WangXiaoying王晓莺

　　(2009)istheonlyexception.ShebrieflyintroducesthreestagesofZhangAiling’sChinese-Englishself-translation,appliespostcolonialismtoanalyzehertranslation,andfindsoutthathertranslationwasinfluencedbyOrientalismandheridentityasafemaletranslator.Nowadaysthereisagrowinginterestinpostcolonialliteratureandcriticism.AccordingtoDouglasRobinson,postcolonialismrefersto“astateofcultureorofculturestudiesarisingoutoftheexperienceofcolonialismanditsaftermath;concernedwithproblemsofgroupidentityasreflectedinlanguage,culture,law,education,politics,etc.;favorablydisposedtodiversityofallkinds,andsuspiciousofsimplisticsolutionstocomplexproblemsbasedonpurification”(121).PostcolonialismmainlydealswithpowerdifferentialsbetweentheEastandtheWestaswellasracialism,culturalidentityandhegemony.Whenitisappliedtotranslationstudies,itisthepostcolonialperspective.Postcolonialtranslationtheoriesconcernwith“theasymmetricalrelationsofpower”

　　intranslation,andexploretherelationoftranslationwithculturalidentity,Orientalism,ideologyandpoliticalstruggle(Niranjana2).Therefore,muchimportancehasbeenattachedtotheexteriorconstraintsontranslation.Becauseofpowerdisparitybetweenahegemoniccultureandadominatedculture,thereneverexistsequaldialoguesbetweendifferentcultures,whichnegatesequivalenceandaccuracyintranslation.

　　PostcolonialtranslationtheoriesoriginatefrompostcolonialismwithEdwardW.Saidasapioneercritic.InhisrepresentativeworkOrientalism,whatisunderdiscussionisnotanobjectiveandtrueOrient,butanOrientimaginedandconstructedbytheOccidentals’prejudiceandstereotypes.Ontheonehand,theOrient“hadbeensinceantiquityaplaceofromance,exoticbeings,hauntingmemoriesandlandscapes,remarkableexperiences”(1);ontheotherhand,theOrientisfeminine,coward,disgraceful,backward,passive,abnormal,emotional,pagan,poor,evil,uglyandprimitive,contrastedwiththeOccidentwhichismasculine,brave,noble,advanced,active,normal,reasonable,Christian,rich,good,beautifulandcivilized.ItcanbeseenthattheOrientplaysaroleoftheopposite“Other”oftheOccident,anindicationofdiscourseviolenceofadominantcultureagainstaminoritycultureandareflectionoftheOccidentalcountries’tremendouspower.Therefore,therelationship3IntroductionbetweentheWestandtheEastisthatofobserversandtheobserved,enlightenersandtheenlightened,dominatorsandthedominated.TheWesternersgetmuchjoyfromwatchingthemysteriousandexoticEast.Meanwhile,theymaintainasenseofculturalsuperiority,claimingthattheycansavetheEastfrombackwardness,darkness,despotismanddifficulty.Inthisway,theyrationalizetheirculturalaggression.Inessence,Orientalismisamirrorimageofculturalhegemonyofimperialism,areflectionofpowerdifferentials,andameansofconceptualizingtheworldbytheWesterners,whichsegregatestheworldintooursandothers,placingtheWesternworldinadominantpositionandmakingWesternstandardruletheworld.

　　OrientalismnotonlyexertsinfluencesontheWesterners’perceptionoftheEast,butalsoaffectstheEasterners’self-representation.WecannotjustreprehendtheWesterners,becauseintellectualsintheEastalsopartakeinproducingthedomestic“Other”,justasSaidpointsout“themodernOrient,inshort,participatesinitsownOrientalizing”(325).ItcanbeseenthatOrientalismisnotjusttheOccidentals’collectiveimaginationandproduction,butalsotheconsequenceofthecomplicityoftheOrientals.However,Saidjusttouchesupontheissuewithoutfurtherexploration.ArifDirlik,whomakesupthisdeficiency,proposestheissueofOrientalismoftheOrientalsorself-orientalizationinhispaperentitled“ChineseHistoryandtheQuestionofOrientalism”.Hestates:

　　WhiletheOccident/Orientdistinction,andOrientalismasconceptandpractice,areofEuropeanorigin,andthetermOrientalismhasbeenusedalmostexclusivelytodescribetheattitudesofEuropeanstowardAsiansocieties,IwouldliketosuggestherethattheusageneedstobeextendedtoAsianviewsofAsia,toaccountfortendenciestoself-orientalizationwhichwouldbecomeanintegralpartofthehistoryofOrientalism.(102)Intheworldculturalconfiguration,theWesternpowersestablishworldordersystembyplacingtheirownvaluesystematthecenterplaceonthebasisoftheireconomic,political,militaryandculturalstrength.Therefore,theWesterncountriesbecometheproducersandrulersofpowerdiscourse,representingtheEasterncountriesasprimitiveandbackward.Meanwhile,theEasterncountriesareforcedtoaccepttheworldpolitical,economicand4IntroductionculturalorderruledbytheWesternpowersandbecomepassiveobjectsofOrientalismimpact.TheresponseisthattheAsiansanalyzetheirself-imageintheculturalconfigurationestablishedbytheWesterncountries.TheOrientals,especiallytheOrientalélitewhohaveEasternbloodandknowledgebackgroundbutliveintheWesterncountries,accepttheirimagesconstructedbytheWesternpowersconsciouslyorunconsciously,evenconfirmandperpetuatethemintheirworks.InordertopandertotheWesterners’preconceivedimagesoftheEasterners,theyrepresenttheOrientalculturebyovergeneralization,oversimplification,exaggerationanddistortion.Admittedly,self-orientalizationrationalizesOrientalism.

　　ZhouNing周宁,ascholarofChineseimagestudy,hasmadeasystematicstudyandclassificationofself-orientalization.Hearguesthatself-orientalizationincludesthreelayers:firstly,itmeanstheOrientals’identificationwiththeOccident/OrientbinaryoppositionviewandEuropeancentrism,theOccidentals’thoughtstoviewtheworldintermsofbinaryopposition,theOccidentals’superioritybecausetheyareadvanced,civilizedandhumane,andtheirowninferioritybecausetheybelievethattheyare“Others”inculturalhegemony;secondly,intheworldordersystemruledbytheOccidentalcountries,theOrientalsbegintoconductself-criticismandculturaltransformation,andmakeeffortsto“De-orientalization”,whichincludestwoextremetendencies:oneistototallynegatetheirowntraditionandpreachwholesaleWesternization,theotheristobringtheEasterntraditionintoplayinWesternculturalhegemony,bothofwhichincluderesistantfactorsandidentificationfactors;thirdly,“De-orientalization”notonlyarchitectstherelationshipbetweentheOrientandtheOccident,butalsotherelationshipamongtheOrientalcountries,withtheprocessincludingOrientalizingeachotheramongtheOrientalcountries(中国形象7).Fromthisanalysis,wecanconcludethattheEasterncountriescanonlyidentifythemselvesintheWesternpolitical,economicandculturalhegemony;underthispre-condition,whetherto“preachwholesaleWesternization”orto“givetheirtraditionintofullplay”,theylosetheircapabilitytoindependentlyrepresentandconstructthemselves.

　　Scholarsathomeandabroadbegintorelatetranslationwithself-orientalization.Self-orientalizedtranslatorsusuallyadheretotheWesternreaders’

　　standpoint,respecttheWesternculture,ignoretheuniquevalueoftheEasternculture,andfeelcontemptuousofotheraspectsoftheEasternculture.Toalargedegree,translators’culturalattitudestowards5Introductionthesourcelanguagecultureandthetargetlanguagecultureinfluencetranslation,whichcanbereflectedintheselectionoftranslationtextsandadoptionoftranslationapproaches.InordertoconformtotheOccidentalreaders’preoccupiednotionsoftheOrient,self-orientalizedtranslators“feedthesebiasedrepresentationsbyproducingeithertouristicliteratureoronethatamplifiestheOrientalcontradictionsasimaginedbytheOccident”

　　(Jacquemond155).Inotherwords,self-orientalizedtranslatorstendtotranslatethetextswhichmanifestdefectsintheOrientals’characters,magnifytheprimitiveness,backwardnessandmysteriousnessintheOrientalculture,anddowngradetheimageoftheOrienttobarbariansinconformitywiththeOccidentalreaders’

　　horizonofexpectationandtheirprototypeimageoftheOrient.Asforthetranslationapproaches,self-orientalizedtranslatorstendtofollowtheprincipleofoneof“scientificaccuracy”intheirtranslationtorepresenta“complicatedOrient”(Jacquemond149).Inotherwords,self-orientalizedtranslatorsadopttheapproachofliteraltranslationtomagnifytheheterogeneity,femininityandcorruptibilityintheOrientalculture,whichcanserveasafoilandcontrasttotheOccidentalculturalprestige.Self-orientalizedtranslatorsalsoadoptthetranslationapproachoftranspositiontocatertotheWesternreaders’

　　habitualwayofexpressionandvaluesystem,andhighlightuniversalityoftheWesternculture,whichresultsinobliterationoftheuniquevalueoftheOrientalculture.Moreover,self-orientalizedtranslatorsadoptothertranslationapproachessuchasdeletion,additionandrewritingtodemonizetheimageoftheOrient,andconfirmrationalityandvalidityoftheWesternculture.TakeWilliamJones,arenownedtranslator,forexample.HeshowedcontemptfortheIndiancultureinhistranslationwiththehelpofintroductionandfootnotes,whichchangedEuropean’sideasaboutIndiaandreinforcedtheWesternculturalprestige.

　　Fromthepostcolonialperspectiveoftranslationstudies,thethesisintendstofigureoutcausesandmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sself-translation.Whatwastheself-translationcontext?WhatwasZhangAiling’sculturalidentity?Whatwereself-translated?Howwereworkstranslated?Withthesequestionsinmindanduponcloseexamination,thethesisaimstoelaboratethatZhangAilingdisplayedself-orientalizationinherself-translationworksselectionandadoptionoftranslationapproaches,whichareconstrainedandconditionedbypowerdifferentials,thepatronageandself-orientalizationin6Introductionherculturalidentity.Self-translationisdefinedbyAutonPopovi?as“thetranslationofanoriginalworkintoanotherlanguagebytheauthorhimself”(19).Inotherwords,self-translationmeansthatanauthortranslateshisorherownworksintoanotherlanguage.However,somescholarsdoubtwhetherself-translationistranslation,becauseself-translationinvolvesalotofcreationandrewriting,whichchallengestheauthenticityofthesourcetext.SusanBassnettpointsoutthat“onesolutiontothedilemmaistodenytheexistenceofanyoriginaltext,andconsequentlytodenytheexistenceofatranslation,assuminginsteadthatwehavetwoversionsofthesametextthatsimplyhappentohavebeenwrittenbythesameauthorindifferentlanguages”

　　(“Translation”

　　30).Admittedly,self-translatorsmakesomeadjustmentsandalterationstothesourcetexts.Overall,self-translatorsassumetheroleofatranslatorinthetranslatingprocess.Therefore,thethesisdeemsself-translationtranslation.

　　Therearesomeself-translatorsinChineseliteraryhistory.Takeforexample,XiaoQian萧乾self-translatedLizi《栗子》intoChestnutsandLixiaJi《篱下集》intoUndertheFence;BianZhilin卞之琳self-translatedhispoemsintoEnglishwhichareincludedinModernChinesePoetry;BaiXianyong白先勇self-translatedTaibeiRen《台北人》

　　intoTaipeiPeople,YouyuanJingmeng《游园惊梦》intoWanderingintheGarden,WakingfromaDream,AnAccountofZhexian《谪仙记》intoLiTung:aChineseGirlinNewYork,etc..

　　ZhangAilingisaself-translator.Thethesisfocusesonherinfluentialself-translatedworks:TheNakedEarth,“Shame,Amah!”,“TheGoldenCangue”,TheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorth.ItmustbemadeclearthatalthoughTheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorthwereoriginallywritteninEnglishandthenself-translatedintoChinese,theEnglishversionsinevitablyinvolvetranslation.Inthefirstplace,thenarrativeofChinesestoriesinEnglishisboundtotranslateChineseculture-specificitemsforthereceivingaudience.Infact,ChineseAmericanliterature“undertakesamissionofculturaltranslation”,andexperiencesbothlanguageandculturaltransmissionfromChinatoAmerica(王光林,华裔作家148).Then,characters,plotsandscenesinhernovels,whichwereintendedtosimulatethereallifeinChina,couldalsobeconsideredtobetranslationofrealityintofabrication.ItisbeyonddoubtthattranslationisanessentialpartofpresentingChinesethoughtsandconceptsinEnglish.Besides,bothtranslationandwritingfromamarginalizedIntroductionculturetoahegemoniccultureisideologicallyloaded.Because“noteverythinginapost-colonialculturalmetatextcanbetransposedinaliteraryformat”,choicesmustbemadeinconsiderationof“theideologicalpressureandcensure-bothimplicitandexplicitpoliticalconstraint-thattheyaresubjecttowithintheirnativeframework”

　　(Tymoczko23).Forthesereasons,ChinesecultureandtraditioninTheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorthcouldbeconsideredastranslationfromtheChinesemetatextsintoEnglish.SubsequentlyitwasZhangAilingwhoback-translatedthesetwoworksfromEnglishintoChinese.Becausethewriteristhesamepersonasthetranslator,wecouldassumethattheself-translatedChineseversionsarethesameastheChinesemetatexts.Forthesakeoftheconvenienceofanalysis,thethesistakestheChineseversionsasthesourcetextsandtheEnglishversionsasthetargettexts.AdescriptivemethodisconductedtodoresearchofZhangAiling’sself-translatedworkswiththepurposesofanalyzingthesocial-culturalandhistoricalcontextofherself-translation,explainingwhysheself-translatedthetextsandhowshetranslatedthemfromthepostcolonialperspective,andsupportingthemainideasofthethesisbyusingsomeconvincingexamplestoillustrateself-orientalizationinherself-translatedworks.Byexaminingthesocial-historicalandculturalcontextofZhangAiling’sself-translation,thethesispointsoutthatherself-translationwasconstrainedbypowerimbalanceandthepatronage.ByelaboratingheridentificationwithinferiorityofChinesecultureandsuperiorityoftheWesternculture,andherconstructionofChinaastheOriental“Other”

　　gazeduponbytheWesternersinherworks,thethesisrevealsthatshedemonstratedself-orientalizationinherculturalidentityasatranslator,whichexertedagreatinfluenceonherself-translationworksselectionandadoptionoftranslationapproaches.Influencedbyinequalityofpowerrelations,patronageandculturalidentity,thethesiselaboratesthatZhangAilingtendedtoself-translatethetextswhichrepresentanegativeimageofChinesepeopleandadespoticalChina.Finally,thethesisanalyzesmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinherself-translationpurposesandapproaches.Themaincontentsareasfollows:Introductionpartgivesageneralintroductiontotheresearch,includingliteraturereview,theoreticalframework,researchquestions,objectivesandsignificanceoftheresearch.ChapterOneconcernstherelationshipbetweenZhangAilingIntroductionandself-orientalizationintermsofsocial-culturalandhistoricalfactors,familybackgroundandlifeexperiences,andexplorestheconnectionbetweenself-orientalizationandherself-translation.ChapterTwodiscussesherself-translationtextselectioninfluencedbyself-orientalization.ChapterThreeanalyzesmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinherself-translatedworkswithexplorationintoself-translationpurposesandapproaches.Inconclusion,itdealswiththecontributionofthethesis,limitationsofthepresentstudy,andrecommendationsforfurtherresearch.

　　Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.1Chapter1Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　Translationresultsfromaseriesofchoices,suchaswhatshouldbetranslated,forwhomworksshouldbetranslated,howworksshouldbetranslatedandsoon.However,translatorscannotmaketheirjudgmentsneutrallyandtheirchoicesindependently,becausetheyare“constrainedinmanyways:bytheirownideology;bytheirfeelingsofsuperiorityorinferioritytowardsthelanguageinwhichtheyarewritingthetextbeingtranslated;bytheprevailingpoeticalrulesatthattime;bytheverylanguageinwhichthetextstheyaretranslatingiswritten;bywhatthedominantinstitutionsandideologyexpectofthem”

　　(álvarezandVidal6).Wemustbealerttothecircumstancesunderwhichchoicesaremade,whichcanbothbroadenthescopeofthetranslationstudiesanddeepenthecomprehensionoffactorsinvolvedintranslation.Thethesisanalysesthesocialcontextwhichcontributestoself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sculturalidentityasatranslator,followedbyelaborationofmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinherculturalidentity.1.1TheSocialContextforZhangAiling’sSelf-orientalization

　　Self-orientalizationmeanstheOrientals’attitudestowardstheirnativecountries.TheOrientalshereespeciallyrefertopeoplewhoarebornintheEastbutliveintheWest.ZhangAilingwasborninShanghaianddwelledinAmericafor40years.AssimilatingknowledgefromboththeEasternandtheWesterncultures,sheconstructedherownuniqueculturalidentity.Theuniqueculturalidentityenabledhertowinanadvantageofacquaintancewiththetwocultures.Therefore,shecouldnotonlytransmitChineseculturetoAmerica,butalsocarryoverAmericanculturetoChina.However,becauseofpowerimbalancebetweenChinaandtheWest,shelostdiscourselibertyandmanifestedself-orientalizationinherEnglishcreationandself-translation.Inaddition,theinfluenceofpatronageistheotherexteriorcausewhichmadeherconformtothemainstreamideologyinAmericaandtheWesterners’

　　aestheticappeal.

　　Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.11.1.1TheConstraintsofPowerImbalance

　　AccordingtoSusanBassnettandHarishTrivedi,translationisnotaninnocent,transparentactivitybutishighlychargedwithsignificanceateverystage;itrarely,ifever,involvesarelationshipofequalitybetweentexts,authorsorsystems”(2).Inotherwords,translatorsencounterpowerimbalanceorpowerdifferentialsbetweenadominantcultureandamarginalizedculture.Translationbecomesabattlefieldthattheparticipantsfightforpowerdiscourse.Inthepostcolonialcontext,translationisaproductofunequaldialoguesbetweenahegemoniclanguagecultureandadominatedlanguageculture,andatoolforperpetuationofculturalinfiltrationandrationalizationofculturalinvasion.Weshouldshowconcerntopowermanipulationhiddenintranslationbetweentwodifferentcultures,realizethattherehasneverexistedgenuinelyequalcommunicationbetweentwodifferentcultures.ZhangAilingwasbornon30September1920,ayearafterthewell-knownMayFourthMovement.Intheearlytwentiethcentury,China,afeeblesemi-colony,wasinanunfavorablepositioninthepoliticalandeconomicconfrontationwiththeWest.IntheWesterners’view,Chinesepeoplewere“unethical”,“depraved”and“undesirable”(周宁,西方看中国646).InthefaceoftheWesterners’negationandcontempt,Chinesepeoplelosttheirconfidenceinthemselvesandwereincapableofrepresentingthemselves.Toacertaindegree,therecentandmodernChinesehistoryishistoryofbloodandtears,andhistoryofhumiliation.TheWesternpowerslaunchedmilitaryinvasionuponChinainsuccession.Basedontheiradvancedweaponandmassiveeconomicandmilitarypower,thesecountriesencroachedonChineseterritory,interferedinChineseinternalaffairsandsuppressedChinesepeople.InordertocompletelysuppressChinesepeople,theWesternpowersmanipulatednotonlyChinesegovernmentbutalsoChineseforeignpolicy.TheyturnedChinesepeopleinpowerintotheirpuppets.Inadditiontomilitaryandpoliticalaggression,theWesternpowerscontrolledChinesepeoplethrougheconomicplunder.TheyexploitedunfairtreatieswhichweresignedwithQingGovernmenttodumpmerchandiseandplunderresources.Meanwhile,theWesternpowersadoptedthepolicyofculturalinfiltrationintoChinawiththepurposesofpropagatingtheWesternvalueandbeliefsystems,manipulatingChinesepeople’sminds,anddestroyingChinesenationalself-respectandself-confidence.

　　TheworstistheJapaneseAggressiveWaragainstChina.In1937JapaninvadedChina11Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.1infullscale.ThenGermanyandSlovakiainvadedPolandandsubsequentlyFrancedeclaredwaronGermany,whichmarkedthebeginningoftheSecondWorldWar.InDecember1941,JapanattackedAmericaonPearlHarbor.Therefore,Americatookpartinthewarimmediately.ThewarendedwiththedefeatofJapanandGermany.

　　TheSecondWorldWarchangedthesocial,politicalandeconomicordersystem.Afterthewar,theUnitedStatesacquiredimmensepolitical,military,economicandculturalpower,andbecameoneofthemostpowerfulcountriesintheworld.TheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionbecamerivals.Theydifferedgreatlyinissuessuchastheconfigurationoftheworld,humanrights,philosophyandperceptions,whichledtotheColdWar.TheColdWarwasaperiodofconflictandtensionbetweentheWesternpowersandtheCommunistWorld.Theywereactuallyatwar,althoughtherewasnodirectmilitaryfightingbetweenthesetwocountries.ThegeopoliticaltensionbetweentheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionwasmanifestedintechnologicalcompetition,spacerace,rivalryatsportsevents,espionageandpropaganda.AmericafearedthattheemergencyoftheCommunistWorldwouldinfiltrateintoAmericanculture.In1947theAmericanpresidentHarryS.TrumanwasadvisedtotakemeasurestocountertheSovietUnion’spolitical-military-ideologicalinfluenceupontheWesternpowers.Therefore,theTrumanAdministrationenunciatedtheanti-communistdoctrine,namelythepolicyofcontainment,toblocktheexpansionofCommunism.

　　ChinagotinvolvedintheColdWarandwasonthesideoftheSovietUnion.ShockedbytheChineseCommunistcontrolofMainlandChina,theAmericangovernmentexpandedtheanti-communismpolicyintoChina.Inordertoensuresecurity,Americaspreadbeliefs,valuesystem,attitudes,perceptionsandtheColdWardoctrinestoChina.ItcanbeseenthatthemainstreamideologyinAmericaintheColdWarperiodwasanti-communismandadvocacyofAmericanphilosophyandconventions.

　　Itisworthmentioningthatweneedtoclarifythemeaningofideologyinthethesisbecausethedefinitionsofitarevariousandambiguous.Theword“ideology”wascoinedbyCountDestuttdeTracyinthelate18th

　　centurytodefinethebasisofpublicopinionsandcommonsense.Ideologyisusuallytakeninasenselimitedtothepoliticalsphere,whichmeansasetofideasandprinciplesthatexplainhowthesocietyshouldwork.However,scholarsinthefieldoflanguage-relatedculturalandtranslationstudiesoftentendtoextend12Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.1theconceptofideologybeyondthepoliticalsphereanddefineitinaratherpoliticallyneutralizedsenseas“thatgrillworkofform,conventionandbeliefwhichordersouractions”

　　(Lefevere16).Inotherwords,ideologyisnotonlyasystemofvaluesandideaswhichlaythefoundationsofpoliticsandeconomy,butalsoasetofopinionsandassumptionswhicharesharedbyaspecificcommunityandexercisegreatinfluencesonwordsanddeeds.Asforthemainstreamideology,itisasystematicsetofconventionsandnormswhichareheldbytherulingclassandenjoythedominantplace.Inthethesis,ideologyistakeninabroadsense,anditincludesthesocialthoughtandtheindividual’sconsciousness.

　　Constrainedbythemainstreamideology,translatorsusuallyacceptitandcatertoitintheirworks.Therefore,confinedbytheprevailingAmericanrepresentationsofChinesesocietyandculture,dominantAmericanaestheticappealandmainstreamideologicalvalues,ZhangAilingselectivelytranslatedherChineseworksintoEnglish,whichincludesTheNakedEarth,“Shame,Amah!”,“TheGoldenCangue”,andwroteTheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorthinEnglish.ConditionedbyinequalityofrelationsbetweenChinaandAmerica,herEnglishcreationandself-translationstressesthestagnation,backwardness,decadenceanddespotisminChinesecultureandsocietyinaccordancewiththemainstreamideologyinAmerica,whichclearlyindicatesself-orientalizationinherculturalidentityasatranslator.1.1.2TheInfluenceofPatronage

　　IfpowerimbalancebetweenChinaandAmericaisoneofthetwoexteriorcauseswhichresultinself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sculturalidentityasatranslator,theinfluenceofpatronageistheotherone.InAndré

　　Lefevere’swords,patronageis“somethinglikethepowers(persons,institutions)thatcanfurtherorhinderthereading,writing,andrewritingofliterature”(15).Patronageusuallyassumestheformofapowerfulpersonorgroupssuchasuniversities,politicalparties,publishinghouses,themediaandgrantingagencies.Recentresearchsuggeststhatpatronageinfluencestheselectionoftranslationtext,thechoiceoftranslationstrategiesandthecanonizationofworks.Itsmightypoweroriginatesfromthreefactors,namelyitsideologicalconstraintwhichrestrainstheparametersofwhatischosentobetranslated,paymentofferedintheformofemolument,remunerationorroyalty,whichisamotivatorfortranslatorstotranslate,andhighsocialstatusbestowedbyitsapprovaland13Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.1recognition.Patronagecanfacilitateandhelpthepublicationandreceptionoftranslationifitisconsideredasvaluableandsatisfactory;theycanblockandprohibitthepublicationandreceptionoftranslationifitisdeemedasworthlessandunsatisfactory.Inordertogetworkspublishedandwellreceivedinthepublishingmarket,translatorshavetostaywithintheconstraintssetbythepatronage.Patronagestandsforthemainstreamideology,whichisadeterminantfactorintranslation.Patronagetakesinitiativetofurthertranslatingthetextswhichconformtoitsideology,andpreventstranslatingthetextswhichruncountertoitsideology.ZhangAilingwaspatronizedbyU.S.I.A,animportantorganizationestablishedbyAmericansinHongKongduringtheColdWarperiodtosabotagethesupportingresourcesofChineseCommunistPartyinMainlandChina,andwinsupportforandunderstandingofAmericanvalue,policyandbelief.SponsoredbytheAmericangovernment,U.S.I.AprovidedhighpaymentsforliteraturetalentswhohadagoodcommandofbothChineseandEnglishtoengageintranslatingandwriting,whichservedthepurposesofenticinganti-communismsentimentandactionaswellaspropagatingAmericanfreedomanddemocracy.

　　Atthattime,U.S.I.AneededZhangAilingtoengageintranslationandwriting,andsheneededthepaymenttosurvive,sosheprovidedserviceforU.S.I.A.ShetranslatedTheOldManandtheSea,“TheLegendofSleepyHollow”

　　andTheYearlingintoChinesesuccessively.However,shewasnotinterestedinAmericanliteratureworksselectedbyU.S.I.A.Inordertomakealiving,sheforcedherselftotranslate.Shesaidthat“translatingnovelswrittenbyWashingtonIrvingseemstospeaktoapersonwhomIdonotlike,resignedlyandinescapably”,andspokecandidlythat“eveniftheworksareaboutthedentist,Iwillsummonupcouragetotranslate”(陈子善35).Itissafeforustoconcludethatincomewasherdominantmotivefortranslating.

　　UnderthecontractwithU.S.I.A,ZhangAilingwasconstrainedbythemainstreamideologyandOrientalisminAmerica.Therefore,herself-translatedworksrepresentChinatobeinastateofbarbarity,despotismandbackwardness,whichservesasafoilforthegreatnessandadvancementoftheWesternculture.Consequently,hertranslationreinforcestheWesterners’prototypeimagesofChinaandrationalizesculturalinvasioninflicteduponChinabyAmerica,whichclearlysuggestshertendencytoself-orientalization.14Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.21.2ManifestationsofSelf-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentity

　　Thispartproceedstotheanalysisofmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sculturalidentity.Asforthedefinitionofculturalidentity,JosianeHamersandMichelBlancarguethat“theintegrationofthecomplexconfigurationthatiscultureintotheindividual’spersonalityconstituteshisculturalidentity”

　　(116).Theystressthattheindividual’sculturalidentityresultsfromsocialization,whichinvolvestheinteractionbetweentheindividualsandsociety.Itisadynamicmechanismwhichbeginsanddevelopsfromchildhood,influencedbymanyfactorssuchasgender,race,class,language,familialbackground,educationstatusandthesocial-historicalenvironment.Therefore,thecourseofconstructingculturalidentityisadynamicprocessofsocializationandacculturation.AssimilatingknowledgefromboththeEasternandtheWesterncultures,ZhangAilingconstructedheruniqueculturalidentity.Manyfactorscontributedtotheaccumulationofherculturalidentity,suchastheinfluencesshegotfromherparents,thelanguagessheacquired,theeducationandtrainingshereceived,thelifestyleshechosetoliveandhertwomarriages,thefirstmarriagewithHuLanchengandthesecondmarriagewithFerdinandReyher(anAmericanplaywright),etc.Whenweexpoundculturalidentity,weusuallyregarditasanidentitychoicemadebetweenahegemoniccultureandaminorityculture,whichleadstoenormousmentaltorture,personalexperiencesofanxietyandexpectation,agonyandjoy.Thiscanbeviewedashybridity,abuzzwordinthepostcolonialcontext,whichgenerallyreferstoablendoramixtureofdifferentnationalities,cultures,languages,religionsandraces.HomiK.Bhabhamakesadetailedanalysisof“hybridity”inhisrepresentativeworkTheLocationofCulture,andstatesthat“hybridityisaproblematicofcolonialrepresentationandindividuationthatreversestheeffectsofthecolonialistdisavowal,sothatother‘denied’knowledgeenteruponthedominantdiscourseandestrangethebasisofitsauthority–

　　itsrulesofrecognition”

　　(114).

　　ZhangAilingisahybridoftheEasternandtheWesterncultures.Becauseofherhybridculturalidentity,shehadadoublevision:ontheonehand,sheactedasanativeinformantof15Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2Chineseculture;ontheotherhand,sheobservedChinesepeoplebystandardsderivedfromtheWesterncountries,andconstructedChinatobebackward,impoverished,superstitious,stupid,dictatorial,irrational,lackofsanitationstandardsanddemocracy.Overall,theWesterncultureenjoyedahigherpositioninhermindthanChineseculture.SheappliedforAmericannationalityinNovember1959,whichimplieshereffortstointegrateintoAmericancultureandidentificationwiththeWesternculturalhegemony.

　　1.2.1IdentificationwithInferiorityofChineseCultureandSuperiorityoftheWesternCultureConfrontedwithChinesecultureandtheWesternculture,ZhangAilingfeltcontemptfortheformer;bycontrast,sheappreciatedandmadegreateffortstointegrateintothelatter.SheidentifiedwiththebinaryoppositionviewoftheOrientandtheOccident,andheldtheviewthattheOrientisfeminine,degradedandcoward,whichcontrastssharplywiththemasculine,advancedandbraveOccident.Thiscanbeseenfromherperceptions,attitudesandbeliefs.ZhangAilingwasanaristocrat.HergreatgrandfatherwasLeeHongzhang李鸿章,whowasaprestigiouspoliticianinQingDynasty,andhergrandfatherwasZhangPeilun张佩伦,whowasbothacelebrityinthelateyearsofQingDynastyandascholarinthefieldofChineseclassics.DespitethedeclineofQingDynasty,herfamilycouldstilllivealifeofabundanceonfamilyproperty.HerfatherZhangTingzhong

　　张廷众,concubineindulgentandopium-ridden,waswell-educatedinChineseclassics.Incompletecontradictiontoherfather,hermotherHuangSuqiong黄素琼,wasanemancipatedandWesternizedwoman,braveenoughtogoabroad,dooilpainting,goskiing,getdivorced,haveAmericanloversanddieabroadonherliberatedbounded-feet.Toacertaindegree,herfathersymbolizedChinesecultureandhermotherrepresentedtheWesternculture.ZhangAilinglookeddownuponwhatherfatherembodied,anugly,evil,immoralandcowardChinese;andappreciatedwhathermotherrepresented,abeautiful,benevolent,progressiveandcourageousWesterner.Inherreminiscenceofherchildhoodin

　　TheGuiltlessWordsofaChild(《童言无忌》),shedepreciatedeverythinginherfather’sconservativehome,“opium,theoldtutorwhotaughtmybrothertowritecompositionslike‘AnExpositionontheFirstHanEmperor’,16Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2chapter-stylednovels,astheywerelaggardanddust-laden”,②

　　bycontrast,“Ihadadeeploveforeverythinginmymother’shomeandfoundgreatconsolationinmodernfacilitieslikethegasstove”.③

　　BothZhangAiling’sfatherandmotherexercisedgreatinfluencesonhereducationintheirownways.Arrangedbyherfather,shereceivedtraditionalboudoireducation,learntclassicalChinesepoetryandprose.ImmersedintraditionalChineseculture,shehadaprofoundknowledgeofChinesecultureandgotmuchencouragementandinspirationfromherfather,assherecalledthat“myfatherwassoproud

　　ofmyliteraturetalentthathemotivatedmetolearntocomposepoems”.④

　　However,

　　hermotherdifferedgreatlyfromherfatherintheissueofhereducation.ZhangAiling’smotherinsistedthatZhangAilingshouldstudyEnglish,Western-stylepaintingandpiano,andwereeagertopassonheremancipatedvaluesandbeliefstoherdaughter,whichwasopposedbyZhangAiling’sfather,whodidnotfavorWesterneducationforhisdaughter.ZhangAiling’smothertookhertoanelementaryschoolwhenshewastenyearsoldandenabledhertoreceiveeducationinSt.Maria,agirls’CatholichighschoolsetupbyAmericanandBritishmissionaries,wheremorethanhalfofthecoursesweretaughtbyAmericanandBritishteachers.Duringthatperiod,shereceivedformaleducationinChineseandWesternliterature.MostbiographiessuggestthatZhangAilinglovedtoreadADreamofRedMansions

　　(《红楼梦》)andnovelswrittenbySomerthetMaugham.MaughamshowsspecialinterestindealingwiththerelationshipbetweentheWestandtheEastfromtheperspectiveofOrientalism,anddepictstheimageofafeminine,submissiveandbackwardChina.InfluencedbyMaugham,ZhangAilingalsodelineatesChinafromtheangleofOrientalism.

　　Aftergraduationfromhighschool,ZhangAilinghadseriousaspirationsforherself,“IwanttobemorefamousthanLinYütang,Idesiretowearthefanciestclothesintheworld,Iplantotravelallovertheworld,IhaveastrongwishtohaveahouseinShanghaiwhichcanbecalledmyownandliveanenjoyableandsimplelife”.⑤Obviously,LinYütangwasanidolwhomZhangAilingwantedtopursue.AsadisseminatorofChineseculturetotheWesternersandananti-communistwriterwholivedinAmericaformorethanthirtyyears,LinYütangenjoyedgreatpopularityandsuccessinAmericaforhisEnglishwritingandtranslationtargetedattheWesternreaders.Hissuccessconsistedinhisdelineationofthecomfortable1Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2andleisuredlifelivedbyChinesepeople.InordertopandertotheWesterners’imaginationaboutChinesepeople,hedemonstratedself-orientalizationinhistranslation,consciouslyorunconsciously,whichisexpoundedbyWangShaoti王少娣

　　(2009).InspiredbyLinYütang’ssuccess,ZhangAilingnotonlygainedgreatconfidence,butalsogotmuchenlightenmentandrevelation.InZhangAiling’srecollection,hermotherreturnedfromabroadtodiscussheroverseasstudyplanafterhergraduationfromhighschool,whichenragedherfathertosuchadegreethatheimprisonedherforsixmonths.Afterwards,shemanagedtoescapefromherfather’sphysicalandintellectualconfinement,whichmeanshertotalrejectionoftheblindandbrutaloldChina,andherembraceofthebrightandniceNewWorld.Becauseofherexcellentacademicachievements,ZhangAilinggotadmissiontoLondonUniversity.However,duetotheSecondWorldWar,shehadtoreceivecolonialeducationatHongKongUniversity.Theperiodfrom1939to1941signifiedZhangAiling’sturntotheWest,becausethreeyearsinHongKongshemostlywroteandreadinEnglish.OwingtoJapaneseinvasionanddominationofHongKong,ZhangAilinghadtoabandonherstudyandreturntoShanghai.

　　InJulyof1953,ZhangAilingleftMainlandChinaforHongKongonthepleaofresuminginterruptedstudiesinHongKongUniversity.Luckilyenough,shefoundajobasatranslatorandwriterwithU.S.I.A,andreceivedhandsomeremunerationsforherworks.Shegot1000USdollarsinadvanceforthepublicationofTheRice-SproutSong.Afteritspublication,goodreviewsbyTimesWeekly,HeraldTribuneandNewYorkTimesfloodedin.ThesuccessenabledhertohaveastrongbeliefinhergoodcommandofEnglishandgreatlyinspiredhertopursueherdreamofbecomingageniusinAmerica.InOctoberof1955,shehurriedlysetsailforAmerica,andlivedtherewithouteverreturningtoShanghai.Uponherarrival,shefeltgreataffectionforNewYork,whichisrevealedfromherletterstoSongQi宋淇.ShebelievedthatNewYorkresembledShanghai,whiletheformerwasmellowerandthelatterwasflashier.

　　Fromtheaboveanalysis,itcanbeseenthatZhangAilingidentifiedwiththebinaryoppositionviewoftheOrientandtheOccident.TheOccidentalculturesenjoyedasuperiorpositiontotheOrientalculturesinhermind,whichwasdemonstratedinhereagernesstoget1Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2integratedintotheWesterncultureandhertendencytodespiseChineseculture.However,itmustbemadeclearthattheself-orientalizationwasnotaculturalidentitychoicemadebyZhangAilingvoluntarily;itwasaconsciousorunconsciousculturalattitudedeterminedbysubjectivecauses,suchasfamilialbackground,educationbackground,creationactivitiesandlifeexperiences,andobjectivecauses,suchaspowerdifferentialsandthepatronage.

　　1.2.2ConstructionofChinaastheOriental“Other”inHerWorks

　　ZhangAilingnotonlyidentifiedwithinferiorityofChinesecultureandsuperiorityoftheWesternculture,butalsoconstructedChinaastheOriental“Other”

　　gazeduponbytheWesternersinherworkstoridiculeChina.“Gaze”,anotherkeywordinthepostcolonialstudies,originallymeanslookinglongandattentively,however,inthepostcolonialcontextitreferstoadominantcultureoverlookingaminoritycultureinasuperiorposition.AccordingtoSaid,theOccidentgetsmuch“bizarrejouissance”

　　fromgazingupontheOrientinacommandingposition(103).SotherelationshipbetweentheOccidentandtheOrientis“gaze”and“beinggazed”.Withprejudicedviews,theWesternerswatchtheEasttoseekfornoveltyandoddity,andproducearemotelyexotic“Other”

　　inaccordancewiththeirimaginationandexpectation.InordertogetintegratedintothemainstreamdiscourseinAmerica,ZhangAilingtriedherbesttogetridoftheshackleofherChineseidentityandChineseculture,andadoptedastandpointoftheWesternersintermsofthoughtpatternsandliteraturecreation,consciouslyorunconsciously.SheobservedChinesepeople,examinedChineseculture,andrepresentedamysterious,abnormalandprimitiveimageofChinagazeduponbytheWesternersinherworkstosatisfytheWesterners’voyeuristicdesire.

　　ZhangAilingfounditamusingtojudgeChinabyWesternstandards,justassheoncementionedthat“itisinterestingtolookatChinainthesamewayforeignerswatchBeijingOpera[...].Jumbled,irritating,mysteriousandamusing”.⑥

　　FromtheperspectiveoftheWesterners,sheviewedChineseinasuperiorpositionandfoundgreatamusementingazinguponChinesepeople.EvenChinesechildren,thefuturemastersofChina,becamedollstotoywith:ThereisaforeigngirlwhohasbeeninChinafortwoyears.[...]However,shehasspecialappreciationofChinesechildren,saying“howbeautifultheyare,especiallyinwinter,whentheyareincotton-paddedjackets,cotton-padded1Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2trousers,cotton-paddedrobesandcotton-paddedoveralls.Theyareshortandfat,toddlingandstaggering.TheOrientalsarebornwithgoodeyes,whichespeciallyshowthemagicoftheupwardslantingeyesintheirtinyyellowfaces.ThisreallymakesmecherishthehopetotakeonebacktoEurope.⑦

　　AstotheWesterners,theirhegemonyisnotonlyculturallydetermined,butalsoraciallydetermined.Theydividepeopleintothreemarkedcategories,namelythewhite,theyellowandtheblack.Thewhitearebynaturesuperiortotheyellowandtheblack,whoaredowngradedtosavageanddegenerate.“Inaninterestingshiftofmetaphorstheblackandyellowraceswerethecottonandwoolinthefabricofcivilizationrequiringtheadmixtureofthesilkofthewhiteracetomakethemsupple”

　　(Jones79),whichexplainswhyChinesechildrenaredescribedtobeincotton-paddedjackets,cotton-paddedtrousers,cotton-paddedrobes,andcotton-paddedoverallsintheabovequotation.Moreover,theWesternersareoftenamusedbytheuniformityoffacialfeaturesofChinesepeople:blackhair,trianglefaces,flatnoses,smallandupwardslantingeyes,yellowskin,wideandbonyforeheads,whichexplainswhytheforeigngirlintheabovequotationexpectstotakeaChinesechildbacktoEurope.TheuniformityoffacialfeaturesofChinesechildrenindicatesthattheWesternersoversimplifyandmarginalizetheimagesofChinese.InadditiontoridiculeChinesechildren,ZhangAilingnarratedChinesewomen

　　astheOriental“Other”gazeduponbytheOccidentalsorevenfakeforeigners.T’ungShih-fang童世舫in“TheGoldenCangue”

　　wasanorthernerwhohadreturnedfromGermany.HewasarrangedtohaveablinddatewithCh’ang-an长安.Shewasdressedup“tolooklikethecelestialmaidenscatteringflowers”

　　inthe“foreigner”

　　T’ungShih-fang’spresence(Chang,“TheGoldenCangue”178).Shebecamespeechless,believedthatshecametobewatched,andfeltthat“herbodywasaltogethersuperfluousandcouldaswellbeshrunkinsizeandputawayifsheknewhowtodothis”

　　(Chang,“TheGoldenCangue”

　　180).Becauseofhermother’sopposition,shebrokeoffamarriagecontractwithhim.Afterthattheymadefriendswitheachother,andexchangedthoughts.Ch’ang-an’sna?vetéamusedT’ungShih-fang,whofoundherfunny.WatchedandjudgedbyT’ungShih-fang,Ch’ang-anbecameanornamenttoalistofancient,amusingandmysteriousChineseobjects.

　　Besides,shedescribedeffeminateChinesemenfromtheperspectiveoftheWesterners2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2toserveasafoiltothegreatnessoftheWesterners.Chinesemenwerepresentedasmentallyandphysicallydisabled,whichaccordedwiththeWesterners’preconceivedthoughtsofChinesemaleimage:weakandimpotent,takingopiuminbedsengravedwithdragonsandphoenixes.Bycontrast,Westernmaleswereconstructedastheelegantandwell-educatedknights,attackingtheprimitiveOrientalcountries,plunderingtheOrientalwealthandsubjugatingtheOrientalwomen.

　　OldrelicsintraditionalChineseculturewerealsointentionallypresentedtowintheWesterners’favorandsatisfytheirimaginationaboutanexoticOrient.Inthefiction“Shame,Amah!”,ZhangAilingnarratedthat“therewerePekingoperamasksonthewallandaframednudepaintingwhichhadbeenawhiskeyadvertisement,Pekingrugs,awastebasketmadeoutofalantern,anestofcarvedrosewoodtables”(100).Theroom,whichwasdecoratedbytinyobjectsofOrientalflavor,becametheWesterners’imaginaryChina.Intheireyes,Chinawasanenchantingplacewithmysteryandexoticflavor,whicharousedtheirdesiretoconquerandseize.

　　ItcanbeseenthatZhangAilingdemonstratedself-orientalizationinherculturalidentityintermsofheridentificationwiththebinaryoppositionviewoftheworldandherconstructionofChinaastheOriental“Other”gazeduponbytheWesterners.Culturalidentitymouldsthethoughtsandactions,becauseoneperceivesthingsfromacertainperspectiveandbehavesaccordingtoacertainsystemofideasandattitudes,whichareallstemmedfromculturalidentity.Translators’culturalidentityreflectshisorherculturalattitudetowardsthesourcelanguagecultureandthetargetlanguageculture,whichinfluenceshisorherselectionofsourcetextsandadoptionoftranslationapproaches,because“thereisanunspokentextinter-contextuallyhiddenintranslationdiscourse,thistexthasaninter-contextuallycompatiblerelationshipwithculturalidentifyandculturalattitude”.⑧

　　Therefore,self-orientalizationinculturalidentityinfluencedZhangAiling’sself-translationworksselectionandadoptionoftranslationapproaches.HerSelf-translatedworksconformtotheWesterners’prototypeimageofChinesepeople,distortandmagnifythebackwardness,filth,despotismandsuperstitioninChineseculture,andconfirmuniversalityandcorrectnessoftheWesterncultures.21Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelectionChapter2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelectionAccordingtoRobinson,“authorsinadominatedculturewhodreamofreachingalargeaudiencewilltendtowritefortranslationintoahegemoniclanguage,andthiswillrequiresomedegreeofcompliancewithstereotypes”(32).AsatranslatorfromChinawhocherishedthedreamofbeingreceivedbyalargegroupofreadersinAmerica,ZhangAilingtendedtowritefortranslationintoEnglish.Therefore,mostofthesourcetextsofherChinese-Englishtranslationwereherownworks.Asweallknow,ZhangAiling,whoexcelledinstylisticinventivenessandpsychologicalsophistication,wasanoriginalwriterinmodernChineseliteraryhistory.Sheproducedmanyworks.Wecannothelpraisingthequestionwhyshechosetoself-translateTheNakedEarth,“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”,“TheGoldenCangue”,TheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorthratherthanherotherworks.Toanswerthequestion,letusfirstlyintroduceherChineseworks.ZhangAiling’sworksshowdiversesubjectmatters.In1932shepublished“TheBull”

　　(牛)and“FarewelltotheConcubine”(霸王别姬),whichshowherfemaleconsciousnessandmoderninterpretation.HerothershortstoriesincludeRomances,whichisacollectionofsentimentalstoriesinfluencedbyMandarinDucksandButterfliesSchoolofpopularromance,“LingeringLove”(留情),whichdealswiththesubjectofmarriage,“YouthfulYears”(年轻的时候),whichisaboutloveaffairs,“Jasmine

　　Tea”(茉莉香片),whichconcernsaboutself-identity,“LoveinaFallenCity”(倾城之恋),whichnarrateswar-timeHongKong,“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”,whichtellsastoryaboutonedaylifeofaChinesefemaleservantinShanghai,“Blockade”(封锁),whichconcernswiththevanityofhumanheart,“AloeswoodAshes:theFirstBurning”(沉香屑第一炉香),whichexpressesasenseofemptinessanddespairandsoon.

　　ZhangAilingwrotenotonlyshortstoriesbutalsonovels.HernovelsincludeInterlockingRings(《连环套》),whichdescribesthephenomenonofcohabitation,SoMuchRegret(《多少恨》),whichisbasedonherloverelationshipwithHuLancheng,LittleAi(《小艾》),whichdelineatesamaidservant’soptimisticbeliefinCommunisttheorytoavoid22Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.1criticismfromtheLeftWingwriters,EighteenSpring(《十八春》),whichisabouttheseparationsandreunionsofthemaleprotagonistandthefemaleprotagonistovereighteenyears,TheNakedEarthandTheRice-SproutSong,whicharetwoanti-communistnovels,TheRougeoftheNorth,whichisastoryofapervertedChinesewoman,etc..

　　Amongtheseshortstoriesandnovels,ZhangAilingselectivelyself-translatedTheNakedEarth,“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”,“TheGoldenCangue”,TheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorth.ThemainstreamideologyinAmerica,culturalhegemony,theinfluenceofU.S.I.Aandself-orientalizationinherculturalidentitycontributetoherself-translationtextselection.Bycloseexaminationoftheself-translatedtexts,wefindthatshetendedtoselecttextsofpervertedChinesewomenand“castrated”Chinesemen,andtextsofautocraticChina.

　　2.1SelectionofTextsofPervertedChineseWomenand“Castrated”

　　ChineseMen

　　Translationtextselectionisnotneutralandfree;itisentangledwith“issuessuchaspower,ideology,institutionandmanipulation”(Lefevere39).Inordertomakesurethatthetranslatedversionscanbesuccessfullyreceivedbytheimpliedaudience,translatorstendtoselectthesourcetextswhichconformtoreligiousbelief,valuesystem,conventions,perceptions,morals,law,customs,habits,attitudesandassumptionsinthetargetlanguageculture,becauseiftranslatorsbiddefiancetothesecannonsinthetargetlanguageculture,thetranslatedversionswillberejectedbythepublishingmarketandtheimpliedaudience.Ifthesourcetextscanbasicallypandertothesecannonsinthetargetlanguageculture,meettheimpliedreaders’

　　aestheticdemands,andaccordwiththeirexpectationofandimaginationaboutthesourcelanguageculture,thenthetranslatedversionscanbewellreceivedandacceptedbythetargetreaders.

　　Thisthesisfocusesontranslationtextselection,especiallyself-translationtextselection,fromadominatedculturetoahegemonicculture,namelyfromtheEasttotheWest.TheEasthasalwaysbeeninexistenceasthe“Other”

　　oftheWest.TheWesterners’

　　preconceivednotionsandstereotypedimpressionsoftheEastaretheirculturalexpectationoftheEast.Therefore,sourcetextsintheEasternculture,whichareinconformitywiththeWesterners’

　　23Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.1stereotypedimpressionsofabackwardandexoticOrient,aremorelikelytogettranslatedintotheWesternculture.Researchesfindoutthatahegemonicculturetendstotranslateworksfromadominatedculture,whichare“perceivedasdifficultandonlyofinteresttospecialists,chosenfortheirconformitytothehegemonicstereotypes,andoftenwrittenspecificallywithaneyetoconformingtothosestereotypesandthusgettingtranslatedandreadinthehegemonicculture”(Robinson32).Inotherwords,theOrientisdeemedasalien,strange,mysticanddifficultbytheOccidentals.Sourcetexts,whichareselectedtobetranslatedfromadominatedculturetoahegemonicculture,usuallyfitintheWesterners’

　　preconceivednotionsofanduncannyimaginationabouttheEast,thussatisfytheircuriosityaboutanexoticanderoticEast.Asisknowntoall,Englishisalanguageofpower,whichisestablishedonthebasisofBritishandAmericaneconomic,political,militaryandculturalstrength.TheinternationalpowerstatusofEnglishmakespeoplesensethatsuccessinEnglish-speakingcountriesmeanssuccessinthewholeworld.Underthecircumstances,self-orientalizedauthorsusuallywritefortranslationintoEnglish,conformtotheprevailingstereotypes,andcatertoWesternnormsandexpectations.

　　Asatranslatorinexile,ZhangAilingdreamedofoccupyinganimportantpositioninAmericanpublishingindustry.InordertocommandareadysaleinAmericanmarket,shehadtoselectsourcetextsandmakeinterpretationsinaccordancewiththeWesterners’ideologies,specificallytheirstereotypedimpressionsofabackwardandexoticChina,becauseideologyis“aconstraintonthechoiceanddevelopmentofbothformandsubjectmatter”(Lefevere16).ZhangAilingchosetoself-translate“TheGoldenCangue”,becauseitdescribesdebauchedandlong-braidedChinesemenwhosmokeopium,takeconcubines,playmah-jongandkeeptheiroldwaysoflivingaswellaspervertedChinesewomenwhoaredrivencrazybytheirscrambleforsexandmoney.SheentertainedthehopethatthestorywouldfitintheWesterners’prevailingstereotypedimpressionsofChinesepeople.

　　“TheGoldenCangue”

　　tellsastoryaboutawomanfromasesameoilshop,whogetsmarriedtoablindanddeformedsonofaneminentfamily.Sheusuallytalksabouthersexualannoyances,whichrevealsheranxiousness,bitterness,tensionandsexualstarvation.Sheattemptstohavesexualrelationshipswithherhusband’syoungerbrotherChi-tse季泽,butinvain.Chi-tsepromotesactressandplaysaroundwithwomen,buthedoesnotriskuniversal24Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.1condemnationtoloveher.Heradulterousdesirefindsaventinpossessionofmoneyandherson.Consideringhersontobetheonlymaninherlife,sheindulgeshersonandignoresthefactthathegoesgambling.Inthefinalpartwhatisthemostrepellenttothereadersisthatthefemaleprotagonistisdeterminedtoliveamiserablelifeanddoesnotallowherchildrentohavejoyandhappiness.Shekeepshersonfromsleepingandcross-examinesabouthissexuallifewithhiswife.Worsestill,sheexploitseveryopportunitytovividlytellallthedetailsaboutherdaughter-in-law’ssecretstohumiliateherinpublic.Shemanipulatesherson’slifeandshouldbeblamedforherdaughter-in-law’sdeath.Alongsidethefemaleprotagonist’spsychologicalandmoraldegeneration,itiseasyforustoseethatZhangAilingconstructedanegativeimageofChinesewomen,malevolent,rancorous,villainousandembittered.

　　InadditiontosmeartheimageofChinesewomen,ZhangAilingsatirizedbad,absurdandcorruptqualitiesofChinesemen,andreversedthepatriarchalauthoritythroughmakingmalecharactersphysicallydeformedandspirituallyemasculated.In“TheGoldenCangue”,SecondMasterChiangsuffersfrom“softbone”andisparalyzed.Heaccompaniesthewholelifeofhiswifelikeashadow,lingeringoninasteadilyworseningcondition.Inreality,heisafather,ahusbandandason.Buttheyonlyexistinname.Hedefinitelyisnotamaninatraditionalsense.Itissafetoconcludethatheis“castrated”

　　physically.ThroughmakingSecondMasterChiangcorpse-like,ZhangAilingsatirizedthedistortedmalebody,anddeconstructedthemaleauthorityofthepatriarch.IfitissafetosaythatSecondMasterChiangcannotassumesocialrolesbecauseofhisdeformedbody,ThirdMasterChiangisphysicallywellandspirituallydisabled.Heisanimpotentconsumedbyopiumandwomen,doesnothingbutlivesonhisfamilyproperty.Henotonlytrieshisutmosttoobtainmoneyfromhismother,butalsoattemptstocheatthefemaleprotagonist’slovetogetmoney.Hislifevaluesandlifestylereflectthatheisobscene,depraved,useless,lackofheroismandmanhood.Ch’ang-bai长白,thesolesonofthefemaleprotagonist,inheritsdecadence,melancholy,weaknessandimpotencyfromhisfarthergenerations.Helacksenthusiasmandvigorforlife,sitsidleeveryday,yawnssluggishlyandsmokesopium.Bydeprivingaman’smanhood,ZhangAilingrepressedandbelittledthepatriarchalauthority.Inadditiontoordinarymalecharacters,otherauthoritativeandpowerfulmenwerealsofeminizedbytheauthor.NinthOldMaster,whorepresentsauthorityand25Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.1powerintheseniorpatriarch,wasjeeredathishomosexuality.Inbrief,Chinesemalesinthefictionwereeitherphysically“castrated”

　　ormentallydisabled,whichsubvertedthemaleauthority.ZhangAilingalsochosetoself-translate“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”

　　intoEnglish.Inthefiction,theChinesemanAhNée’shusbandwasrepresentedastimid,sexualimpotent,andlackofstrengthandmasculinespirit,whichwasinaccordancewiththeWesterners’preconceivedthoughtsofaweakanduselessChinesemaleimage.InsharpcontrasttothefeminizedChineseman,theforeignerMr.Schachtisapredator,whohassexualrelationshipswithallkindsofChinesewomenandcaststhemawaylikeapairofworn-outshoes,whichindicatestheWesternmales’intensesexualpotencyandmasculinity.ItissafetosaythatthisfictiondelineatesChinesemen“castrated”bytheOccidentalmalesandseductivelyenchantingChinesewomenwithsexualappeal.

　　ZhangAiling“castrated”

　　ChinesemalesbecausetheWesternerstendtofeminizeChinesemales.ThehistoricalrootofemasculatingChinesemencouldbetracedbacktotheinvasionandcolonizationofChinabyImperialistpowerswithstrongarmorandsharpweaponsinthe19thcentury.UnderthemanipulationofWesternhegemony,Chinesepeoplewereperceivedaseffeteandimpotent.Sincethelate19thcentury,Chinesepeople,especiallyfarmersincoastalareas,begantoemigratetoAmerica.Theywereilliterate,stucktooldcustomsandledalifeofisolationfromothersocialcommunities.Mostofthemwereindenturedlaborers,engaginginphysicalwork.ComparedwiththeOccidentalmales,Chinesemaleswereweakerinphysicalstrengthandendurancebecauseofadiscrepancyinconstitution.Otherswentintoserviceindustry,andtookupfeminizedjobssuchaskeepahousehold,docookinganddothelaundry.However,Chinesemaleswereabsentfromthedomainswhichdemonstratemalestrengthandpower.Therefore,theWesternersweredeemedtobemale,endowedwithcharacteristicssuchasreason,mighty,aggressivenessandnobility;onthecontrary,Chinesewereconstructedtobefemale,taggedbytemperamentssuchastenderness,weakness,primitivenessandpassiveness.BydeformationandemasculationofChinesemale’simage,ZhangAilingcouldenabletheWesternerstogetmuchsatisfaction,maintaintheirsenseofculturalsuperiority,andconsolidatethebeliefthattheyarethegreatsaviorwhocoulddominateandredeemChinafromdarknessandbarbarity.26Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.22.2SelectionofTextsofAutocraticChina

　　InAmericans’minds,autocraticChinameansthatChinesepeopleliveinhorror,andlosetheirfreedomaswellasdignityashumanbeingsundertheruleofChineseCommunistParty.ThefoundationofPeople’sRepublicofChinaleadstodisillusionofAmericandreamofattemptingtoreformChinabasedonanAmericanmodel,andtheemergenceofChinafillsAmericanswithangerandfrustration.AmericansbelievethatChineseCommunistPartyishypocriticalanddespotic,propagandizethealienationanddestructionofhumannatureofChinesepeopleunderthetyrannicalgovernance,andaredeterminedtorescueChinafromdespotismbyspreadingAmericanvaluesystemsanddemocracytoChina.Actually,infiltrationofAmericancultureintoChinaisculturalhegemony,whichmeanstheoverwhelmingdominationofWesternmainstreamideologythroughexportingWesternmodesofthinking,values,norms,beliefs,moralityandaestheticstandardstotheEasterncountriesinanon-violenceway,whichcanmaketheEasternpeopleunconsciouslyandimperceptiblyacceptculturalinvasion,thusrationalizeculturalmanipulation.CulturalhegemonyisbasedontheperceptionthatWesterncultureispowerful,superioranddominant,whiletheEasterncultureisweak,inferiorandperipheral.Therefore,theWesternersbelievethatWesternculturecaninfiltrateintoandwrestwiththeEasternculture.

　　AssumingthatWesternpoliticalsystemisdemocraticandadvanced,AmericanshaveunfairandprejudicedattitudestowardsChinesepoliticalsystem,whichisperceivedasautocraticandviolent.ConstrainedbythismainstreamideologyinAmerica,ZhangAilingslanderedChineseCommunistPartytorevealtheir“evil”

　　dominationinherworks.Itisworthmentioningthatherpersonalideologyalsocontributedtoherwritingandself-translatinganti-communistnovels.In1952sheleftShanghaiforHongKongwiththepurposeofresuminginterruptedstudies,butfailed.ShecouldnotfindapositioninHongKongsothatshebecamefinanciallyhelplessandhadtoworkforU.S.I.A.UnderthecommissionofU.S.I.A,shewroteandself-translatedtwoanti-communistnovels,namelyTheRice-SproutSongandTheNakedEarth.Asforanti-communist,shewasnotreluctant.Asadecliningaristocrat,shepersonallydreadedtheinfluenceofCommunism,whichcanbeseenfromZhang’sOutlook,“fromthethirtiesonward,Ifeltthepressurefromtheleftinwhatever2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.2Iread.AlthoughIfeltaninstinctivedislikeforit,andwasalwaysoutsidepopulartrends,Iknewthat,unlikeWesternCommunism,itsinfluencewouldnotbelimitedtothethirties”.⑨

　　ThecentralstoryofTheRice-SproutSongisaboutariotinavillagedevastatedbyfamine.Farmerslaboralltheyeararound,stilltheyareunabletofilltheirstomachsandonlyfeedonricegruel.SufferingfromexorbitanttaxesandleviesimposedbyChineseCommunistParty,Chinesepeasantshavenomeansoflivelihoodandfindlifeunbearableandimpossibleforthem.ZhangAilingdesignedanincidenttotriggerarebelagainstChineseCommunistParty,namelyeveryhouseholdisdemandedtocontribute“halfapigandfortycattiesofNewYearcakes”tothesoldiers’families(TheRice-SproutSong116).Uponcloseexamination,wefinditunreal.Thereareonlyafewsoldiers’familiesinavillage,ifeveryhouseholdcontributesasmuchashalfapig,itissurelymorethanenoughforthesoldiers’

　　familiestoeatandtheyevencanopenabutcher’sshop.Evidently,ZhangAilingmisrepresentedChineseCommunistParty.Accordingtohernarration,ChineseCommunistPartyisdestructiveandevil,whichcanbeseenfromthefollowingstatement,“onemomentthisarmycomes;onemomentthatarmycomes.Afterthearmycomethebandits.Andthistimeitisworsethananybandits.Youcan’tevenburyfourouncesofmilletundergroundandgetawaywithit.Yes,theyalwaysknow”(TheRice-SproutSong106).Thestoryalsoprobesintothecharacters’

　　psycheanddealswiththeinterpersonalrelationshipbetweenfarmersandtheChineseCommunistPartymembers.Thereisalackofunderstandingamongthem,whodesiretopryoneachother’saffairs.Everyoneisafraidofbeingwatchedbyothers,whichrepresentsasocietyinwhichnotonlypersonalprivacyisneverrespected;butwhereaslightmistake,ifdiscovered,mightleadtosufferingandpermanentruin.Toliveinsuchasocietyisaprecariousthing.Everyonehastobeverycautiousinhisorherdailyactivitiesandconversations.Nooneotherthanoneselfcanbetrusted.Inhernovel,mistrust,suspicionandgloatingoverothers’

　　sufferingbecomepsychologicalillnessesthatseemtohavebeeningrainedinthecontemporaryChinesenationalcharacter.TraditionalfolkspeechesandpoliticsareridiculedandsatirizedinTheRice-SproutSong.Whenthekanpu干部asksPlentyOwnChou周大有whyhechoosestomarryGoldFlower金花,herepliesthatbecauseshecanwork.GoldFlowergoesthroughthesame2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.2routine.FortheWesternreaders,itisridiculousbecausetheybelievethatmarriageshouldbebasedonaffectionatefeelingsinsteadofsomesuperficialthings,abilitytoworkforexample.Worsestill,Communistswhowanttogetmarriedshouldasktheorganizationforpermission.

　　Moreover,thestoryconsolidatestheWesterners’

　　prototypeimageoffilthyChinesepeople.Thestorybeginswiththedescriptionofthatchedprivies,“inthiscountrytownthefirstbuildinginsightwereastringofexactlyidenticalthatchedprivies,whichhadadesertedairdespitetheoccasionalwhiffoffaintodorinthewind”(TheRice-SproutSong1).Inthisstory,Chinesepeopledefinitelyhavenosenseofsanitation:theirclothesaregreasy;foodissmelly;packagesareoil-stained;livingenvironmentreleasesdisgustingodor.

　　InspiredbythesuccessofTheRice-SproutSong,ZhangAilingself-translatedLoveinRedLand(《赤地之恋》)intoTheNakedEarth.Itcanbeconsideredastravelwriting:firstly,themaleprotagonistLiuQuan刘荃experienceslandreforminanorthernvillage,whereinnocentfarmersaretorturedtodeath;andthenhemovestoShanghaitotakepartinThreeAntis,themovementagainstthethreeevilsofbureaucracy,wasteandcorruption;finally,hejoinsthearmytoResistUSAggressionandAidKorea.

　　ThestoryisalsocenteredontheloverelationshipbetweenLiuQuanandHuangJuan黄绢,whichendsupwithnogoodbecauseHuangJuanhastoliveillicitlywithShenKaifu申凯夫inexchangeforthesafetyofLiuQuan.Aseriesofeventsleadtothemaleprotagonist’sdisillusionmentanddisappointmentwithCommunistdoctrines.ByexposingthedarknessandevilinChineseCommunistParty,thestorywasintendedtocontaintheexpansionofCommunistsandpopularizeAmericandemocracyandcivilization.

　　Byfabricatingthestory,ZhangAilingexposedthatChineseCommunistleadersschemeagainsteachotherandconcoctedaserialsofvilecharacterssuchasZhangLi张励,ZhaoChu赵楚,CuiPing崔平,GeShan戈珊,ShenKaifuandChenYi陈毅.ZhangLiisaCommunistwhocommitsmurderwithoutblinkinganeyelidandtrieseverymeanstoseducewomen.ZhaoChuandCuiPingusedtobecomradesandintimatefriendswhowentthickandthintogether.Theirrelationshipusedtobesodeepthattheycouldrescueeachotherattheriskoftheirownlives.However,theirintimacyendsupwithmutualoppressionandpersecution.GeShanisafemaleCommunistwhocontractslungdiseaseandhassexualintercourseswithallkindsofmen.ShenKaifu,apowerfulandinfluentialmaleCommunist,2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.2ismean,cruel,hypocriticalandlustful.ChenYiisaccusedofembezzlingthefundforpurchasingmedicalapparatusandinstrumentstobuyfurovercoats,furbootsandfurgloves.Fromtheaboveanalysis,itcanbeseenthatZhangAilingchosetoself-translatethetextswhichconstructanerotic,debauched,impotentandprimitiveimageofChinesepeopleandaninhumaneandautocraticimageofChina,becauseonlytheOriental“Other”imageofChinacouldsatisfytheWesterners’

　　voyeuristicdesireandarousetheirinteresttoread.Herself-translatedtextsreflecttheWesterners’

　　stereotypedimpressionsofamystic,backward,depravedandviolentChinaaswellastheirbiasedanddisdainfulattitudestowardsChinesepoliticalsystemandChineseCommunistParty,whichindicatesself-orientalizationinherself-translationtextselection.

　　3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　Chapter3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproachesThischapterwillbedevotedtoanalyzingself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sself-translationpurposesandapproaches.Confrontedwithculturaldifferenceswhichwereunfamiliartothetargetreaders,ZhangAilinghadtodecidehowtopresentherhomeculture,withthefollowingchoices:literaltranslation,transposition,rewriting,deletion,additionandsoon.Whateverchoicesmadebyherwouldinevitablyrevealhertranslationpurposes.ZhangAilingmadelessdemandontheWesternreaders,translatedfromtheirstandpoint,gavecentralimportancetothem,conformedtothemainstreamideologyandtheirprejudice,andamplifiedthecorruptionandprimitivenessofChinesecultureexpectedbythemtoserveasafoiltothecivilizedanddemocraticWesternculture.

　　GivingcentralimportancetotheWesternreadersindicatesareader-basedorreader-centeredconcept,whichmeansthatatranslatorputsmuchemphasisonreaders’

　　aestheticexpectation,thinkingpatterns,ideology,experiencesofdailylife,beliefsandvalues.Thesefactorsarecalledhorizonofexpectation,whicharepreexistedthoughtsandconceptsinthereaders’minds.ZhangAilingtranslatedworkstotargetatEnglish-speakingreadersinHongKongandAmerica.MotivatedbythefinancialbenefitandherdreamofageniusinAmerica,sheboretheimpliedreaders’

　　horizonofexpectationinmindandgavecentralimportancetoit.ZhangAiling’sbeliefinthecentralimportanceoftheimpliedreaderswasarticulatedin“OnWritings”(论写作),namely“byclassifyingyourselfintoanaudiencegroup,wewillautomaticallyknowwhattheyneed.Givethemwhattheyneed”.⑩

　　Soitcanbeseenthatshealwaysattachedgreatimportancetotheimpliedreaders’expectationsandneeds.Asforwaystocatertotheaudience,ZhangAilingmentionedthat“onewayistosaywhatpeoplewantto1○say;theotheristosaywhatpeoplewanttohear”,1whichsuggeststhatsheputmuchemphasisonthetargetreaders’worldexperiences,ideology,aestheticinclination,habitualwayofthinking,expectations,valuesandbeliefs.Moreimportantly,shemadeagreatefforttomakeitherguidingprincipleinhertranslation.

　　31Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1InordertofitintheWesterners’

　　prototypeimageofChina,ZhangAilingadoptedthetranslationapproachofliteraltranslationtorepresentadepravedandprimitiveimageofChina,additiontomagnifythenegativeaspectsofChineseculture,andrewritingtomarginalizeandridiculeChinesepeople.AsforotheraspectsofculturaldifferencesbetweenChinaandtheWesterncountries,sheadoptedthetranslationapproachoftranspositiontoincreasereadabilityandconfirmtheWesternculturalvalue.Inaddition,inordertocatertotheWesterners’senseofculturalsuperiority,shedeletedthesentenceswhichchallengetheirauthority.3.1FittingintheWesterners’PrototypeImageofChina

　　Undertheseveretestof“language,publishingandmarket”,ZhangAilinghadtotranslateinconformitywiththeWesternreaders’imaginationaboutChina.SheacceptedthebinaryoppositionviewoftheEastandtheWest,viewedChineseculturefromtheperspectiveoftheWesternreaders,examinedculturaldifferencesbetweenChinaandtheWesttostrengthenculturalhegemonyofimperialism,anddisplayedChinainaccordancewiththeWesterners’prototypeimage,whichmanifestsherself-orientalization.

　　3.1.1RepresentingaDepravedandPrimitiveChinabyLiteralTranslationTargetingattheWesternreaders,ZhangAilingintroducedherhomeculturefromthestandpointoftheWesternreaders.InordertopandertotheWesterners’cognitionconcerningthedepravity,backwardness,abstrusenessandprimitivenessofChina,sheadoptedthetranslationtacticofliteraltranslationtorepresentChinaastheOriental“Other”toserveasafoiltotheculturalprestigeoftheWesternersintermsofcustoms,languagesandthinkingpatterns.“Literaltranslationtakesword-for-wordtranslationasitsstartingpoint,althoughbecauseofthenecessityofconformingtotargetlanguagegrammar,thefinaltargettextmayalsodisplaygroup-grouporclause-clauseequivalence”

　　(ShuttleworthandCowie95).Thefollowingexamplesareillustrative.Example1:Sourcetext:三十年来她戴着黄金的枷。她用那沉重的枷角劈杀了几人，没死的也送了半条命。(金锁记

　　146)32Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1Targettext:Forthirtyyearsnowshehadwornagoldencangue.Shehaduseditsheavyedgestochopdownseveralpeople,thosethatdidnotdiewerehalfkilled.(“TheGoldenCangue”190)

　　“黄金的枷”wasliterallyrenderedinto“agoldencangue”.CangueisaheavyboardorframewornaroundaneckasconfinementandpublichumiliationinChina.Ontheonehand,itstandsforthejewelrythatthefemaleprotagonistCh’i-Ch’iao曹七巧wears,whichimpliesthatshetradeshermarriageforfinancialbenefit;Ontheotherhand,sheisconfinedtothegoldencangue.Withtheevolutionofthestory,Ch’i-Ch’iao,whooriginallyisavictimofthefeudalsociety,becomesmaliciousandperverted.Inordertoplundermoney,shebecomespatheticanddetestable,torturingandravagingpeoplearoundher.Shetakesadvantageofeveryopportunitytosneerandscoffathersister-in-lawChi-shou芝寿.HerpoisonouswordsandvenomousbehaviormakeChi-shou“theclawsofaslaughteredchicken”,finallyherdeath(“TheGoldenCangue”

　　175).ZhangAilingusedstereotypingandbizarrecontenttoconformtotheOccidentalreaders’prototypeimpressionofChinesepeople.Byliteraltranslation,ZhangAilingrepresentedadull,insane,depravedandvulgarimageofaChinesewoman.Example2:

　　Sourcetext:你等着看，三茶六礼，红灯花轿，少一样你拉着老吴打她嘴巴。(怨女

　　304)Targettext:Youwaitandsee:thethreeteas,thesixgifts,theredlamps,thefloweredsedan-chair,alltheusualmarriagetrimmings,ifthere’sonethingmissing,justcollarOldWuandslapherface.(TheRougeoftheNorth20)Atfirstglance“thethreeteas”and“thesixgifts”mightmakenosensetotheWesternreaders.Uponcloseexamination,wewillfindthatZhangAilingintendedtoconformtotheOccidentals’expectationofChineselanguagewhichlackedgrammaticalstructureandwereincapableofaccuratethought.FromtheWesterners’

　　pointofview,comparedwiththerefinementandaccuracyofEnglishlanguage,Chineselanguagewas“aninferioroneandlefttheChineseinarudimentarystageoflinguisticdevelopment”(Johns55).TheinaccuracyandungrammaticalnatureofChineselanguageindicatedarelativelylowlevelofcultural33Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1attainment.SoitcanbeseenthatZhangAilingrepresentedtheprimitiveandequivocalnatureofChineselanguageimaginedbytheWesternreaderstoconfirmthattheWesterninvasionandsubjugationofChinaservedfordisseminatingcivilizationandenlightenment.Example3:

　　Sourcetext:夫妻不和，长白渐渐又往花街柳巷里走动。(金锁记

　　135)

　　Targettext:Sincethetwodidnotgetalong,Ch’ang-paiagainwentscrollingin“thestreetsofflowersandthelanesofwillows”.(“TheGoldenCangue”177)

　　“花街柳巷”wasliterallyrenderedinto“thestreetsofflowersandthelanesofwillows”,referringtothebrothel.AlthoughthetranslationisstrangetotheWesternreaders,itiseasyforthemtounderstandwhattheplayboyCh’ang-paiiscapableof.Byliteraltranslation,ZhangAilingrepresentedadepravedanddissipatedimageofChina.

　　Byliteraltranslation,ZhangAilingrepresentedChinatobelackofappealanddegenerateinconformitywiththeWesterners’

　　culturalcognitionandculturalexpectation.ThedegenerationandprimitivenessstrengthenedthesamerepresentationsthatChinawascomplicatedandirremediable.

　　3.1.2MagnifyingtheNegativeAspectsofChineseCulturebyAddition

　　Thetranslationtacticofadditionistoincludealotofredundantinformationoradditionallyexplanatoryphrasesinthetranslatedtexts.Assumingthatthetranslatedtextsarenotcomprehensibleunlesstheimplicitinformationismadeaccessible,self-orientalizedtranslatorstendtomakealotofexplicitexplanation.ThisisthesamecasewithZhangAiling.AssumingthattheWesternreaderswereignorantofChinesecultural-specificitems,sheactedasanativeinformanttodecodetheunfathomablemysteriesofChina.Sheadoptedthetranslationapproachofadditionalottoexplicitlyexplainthebizarreness,stagnationandviciousnessofChineseculture.SheprovidedtheadditionalliteraryandculturalbackgroundinthetranslatedEnglishtextstomagnifythenegativeaspectsofChineseculture,whichsuggeststhatshegaveprioritytotheWesternreaders.TheprioritygivenbyZhangAilingtotheWesternreadersactuallyimpliestheunequalculturalexchangebetweenChinaandtheWesterncountries.

　　Example1:34Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1Sourcetext:这不过是讨个吉利，希望新娘子将来也和她（金福太太）一样福气。(秧歌15)Targettext:Butitwasanecessaryceremony,expressiveofthewishthatthebridewouldliveaslongandhaveasmanysonsandgrandsonsastheoldwomancalledthe“ch’uenfut’ait’ai”onthisspecialoccasion-thecompletelyblessedlady.(TheRice-SproutSong11)Chinesecultureattachesgreatimportancetothebirthofboysforthebeliefthatthemaledescendantscanburnincenseandoffersacrificesinfrontoftheirancestors’graves,otherwisethedeadwillbecursedandtormentedintheperpetualstruggleagainsthungerandpoverty.Therefore,bytheaccidentofsexdifferentiations,boysbecomethetreasuresofthefamily;onthecontrary,girlsarethehorribleburdens,whoaredislikedandunwelcomesincetheirbirth.Inordertoproducetheneedymaleoffspring,Chinesemengetmarriedassoonaspossible.Chinesewomenarerequiredtoproducethemaleheirstocontinueafamilyline.Inabilitytoproduceamaledescendentjustifiesadivorce.Immortality,prosperityandabunchofsonsmeanhappinessforChinesepeople.IntheWesterners’uncannyimagination,Chinesepeoplearebarbarians,licentious,shamelessandfertile.AgrowingpopulationofChinesepeopleisnotonlyadisastertotheirowncountry,butalsoathreattotheWesterncountries.Boundbymoralityandsociety,civilizedpeoplehaveasmallerreproductivecapacity,however,lustfulanddebauchedChinesepeoplereproduceoffspringlikeanimals.ZhangAilingexplicitlyexplainedthemeaningof“金福太太”totheWesternreadersinserviceoftheracialprototype.

　　Example2:

　　Sourcetext:金锁、银锁、翡翠锁片，都是要把孩子锁在人世上。(怨女

　　330)Targettext:Thegiftsweregoldandsilverpadlockseachwithitsownchaintobewornaroundthebaby’sneckandflatpendantsofgreenjadeshapedlikepadlocks.Thebabymightescapeifnotlockedupandchaineddowntothislifeonearth.(TheRougeoftheNorth56)35Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1TheEnglishversionismuchlongerthantheChineseonetoexplainChinesepeople’sbeliefinsupernaturalthings.Chinesepeoplearesoignorantandfatuousthattheytrytokeepthelifeofachildbymakingthechildweargoldandsilverpadlocks.ThethoughtpatternsandideologicalstateofthewholeChinesenationareperceivedtobefraughtwithvariedstupidideasandsuperstition.TheprevalenceofsuperstitionsandfortunetellersmakeChinesepeoplelessrespectableandadmirable.ZhangAilingtookadvantageofthisbizarrenessandignorancebyaddingexplanatoryinformationinthetranslatedtext,whichstrengthenedtheOccidentals’

　　archetypalimageofthebenightedandbackwardChineseculture,andservedasafoiltorationalityofWesterncivilization.

　　Example3:Sourcetext:归在孝心上，好让他名正言顺地屈服。(怨女

　　310)Targettext:Puttingitallonfilialpiety,thehighestvirtue,soheneednotfeelashamedforgivingintoher.(TheRougeoftheNorth29)Theadditionallyexplanatoryphrase“thehighestvirtue”wasincludedintheEnglishversiontohighlightthatChinesepeoplegiveprioritytofilialpiety,whichisconsideredtobethebasisofChineseautocracy.Inthepatrimonialbureaucraticorder,sonsarerequiredtoobeytheirfathers;cabinetministersaresupposedtoyieldtotheemperors;ordinarypeopleareexpectedtocomplywiththegovernmentofficials.Lackoffilialpietyisperceivedasthesourceofallsocialvices,suchasvoidofsincerity,violationofproprieties,disobediencetosuperiorsandcowardiceonthebattlefield.AstotheWesterners,itisthefactthattheunparalleledreverencetoauthorityis“tyranny,oppressionandinjustice”

　　(Johns41).Governedbyobediencetofilialpiety,Chinesepeoplecanneverbeself-dependant,letalonetoownfreedom.IntheWesterners’imagination,Chinesepeopledesperatelystruggleagainstthedespotismandpoverty;however,theWesternersenjoygreatfreedomandprosperitybroughtbytheiradvancedcivilization.

　　Example4:Sourcetext:他直拱手

　　(怨女

　　320)Targettext:Hedidobeisancewithoutbotheringtogetup,righthandover

　　leftfist,jerkingthemupanddownrepeatedlywithlittlebows.(TheRougeoftheNorth43)36Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1Example5:

　　Sourcetext:“百顺——又往哪里跑？这点子工夫还惦记着玩！还不快上学去！”

　　(桂花蒸

　　阿小悲秋

　　168)Targettext:“ShinFa!Nowwhereareyourunningto?Onlyamomentleftandyourmindstillonplaying!Feed,youlittledevil,andgotoschool.”(“Shame,Amah!”93)WecanseeinExample4thattheEnglishversionwasgreatlyexpanded,whichhighlightsthatChinesepeoplepaymuchattentiontopoliteness.Chinesepeopleindistinctlyknowtheformalitiesandmaketheproprietiespartoftheirdailyroutine.Chinesepeoplebelievethattheuseofproprietiesiscriticaltomaintainsocialorder,andsmoothinterpersonalrelationships.Onthecontrary,theWesternershavemisunderstandingofanddisdainfulattitudestowardstheover-elaboratedformalities.TheyholdtheviewthatChinesepolitenessisnotgenuinekindnesssincerelyexpressed;“itisaritualoftechnicalitieswhich,likealltechnicalities,areimportant,notastheindicesofastateofmindorofheart,butasindividualpartsofacomplexwhole”

　　(Smith36).Thecomplexmassofrulesisbewildering,whichdoesnotindicateanyvirtuesinhumannatureandimpliesthatChinesepeoplearecomplicated.TheWesternersdisparageChinesepolitenessandevensuggestthatthesuperfluousrulesofcourtesyshouldbeabolished.

　　InExample5,thevulgarlanguage“feed,youlittledevil”wasadded.IntheWesterners’

　　view,Chinesepeoplehaveatendencytoshoutabusesinpublic.Iftheyquarrelwitheachother,filthylanguageandpoisonouswordscomeoutjustasthestreamfloodswithdirtythingsandcontinueswithoutanending.

　　ThecombinationoftheChineseetiquetteswithvulgarlanguageindicatesthatChinesepeoplearedeceitfulandcunning,whichbelittlesChinesecordialityandreliability.Byadoptionofthetranslationapproachofaddition,ZhangAilingmagnifiedthenegativeaspectsofChineseculture.

　　Example6:Sourcetext:“这三爷真不得了，黑饭白饭，三个门口。”她一面拿钥匙开厨门一面说。

　　(怨女

　　375)Targettext:“ThisThirdMasterisreallyinafix,withhisblackriceand3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1whitericethreehouseholds,”shesaidassheturnedawaytofindthekeyforthecabinet.Opiumisblackricebecauseitbecomesjustasmuchastaffoflife.(TheRougeoftheNorth118)TheimagethatChinesepeoplesmokeopiumwasprevalentintheOccidentals’collectiveimaginationaboutChina.Intheirimagination,mostChinesepeoplewereaddictedtothenarcotic,lyinginbedandsmokingopium.Opium-smokingwasassociatedwiththefrailtyinbodyandmind;opium-smokerswerelabeledbydefectsincharacterssuchaslethargy,depravity,indolenceandwickedness.TheWesternersnotonlyimaginedChinesepeopletobeopiumsmokers,butalsobelievedthat:EveryChinesepersonsmugglesfirearmsandammunition,putscorpseunderbedaftermurder,rapeswomenregardlessofageandengagesineverythingthatdeservesnothinglessthandismemberment.[...]Chinesepeopleactuallybecomethefoulest,themostdisgusting,themostcontemptibleandthemosttreacherous12animalsontwolegs.○

　　ZhangAilingintentionallyaddedthesentence“opiumisblackricebecauseitbecomesjustasmuchastaffoflife”togeneralizeChineseculture.Opium-smokingbecameoneofthemainimagesofChinesepeopleinconformitywiththeWesterners’aestheticconceptaboutChina,whichwasmisleadingandconfusing.Asisknowntoall,itwasBritainthatimportedopiumtoChinaforthesakeofwealth.Inordertojustifytheiropiumtrade,BritishpeoplerepresentedChinesepeopleascongenitalopiumsmokersandinsistedthattheyjustsuppliedwhatChinesepeopleneeded.Byadoptionofthetranslationtacticofaddition,ZhangAilinginfactrationalizedopiumtrade.Example7:Sourcetext:路上来了个老太婆，叫住了那小贩问他芝麻糖的价钱。(秧歌

　　7)Targettext:Apasser-by,anoldwomanwithboundfeet,stoppedthehawkertoaskthepriceofthecandy.(TheRice-SproutSong3)Foot-bindingforwomenwasacorruptandout-datedpracticeinChina.Althoughfoot-bindingwaspainfulandinconvenient,Chinesewomencrippledandboundtheirfeet3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1withtheaimofentertainingmalesaswellasacquiringextrabeautybroughtbyaswayingfigureonapairofpermanentlydeformedfeet.ChinesemalestotallyneglectedthefactthatthepersecutionofwrappingfeetwasphysicaltortureandpsychologicalhumiliationforChinesefemales.TheWesternmalesalsohadaspeciallikingfortheOrientallyprototypewomentypicalofreservedness,exquisiteness,mildnessandmysterybroughtbyapairof“three-inchgoldlotus”.Therefore,apairofsmallfeetwasanessentialcriterionformeasuringOrientalbeautyandacrucialfactorforexitingsexualdesires.Theaddedphrase“boundfeet”

　　madetheWesternreadersbeexposedtotheseeminglymoststrikingcharacteristicoftheChinesefemales,whichindicatesthatZhangAilingconsciouslyexploitedthearchetypalimagetopandertotheWesternreaders’horizonofaesthetics.

　　Example8:Sourcetext:“吃啦吗？”(赤地之恋

　　13)Targettext:“Haveyoueaten?”whichwastheusualphraseofgreeting,anytimeofday.(NakedEarth10)

　　Peoplegreeteachotherbysaying“Haveyoueaten?”inChina;bycontrast,thenormalwayofexpressingsalutationis“Howdoyoudo?”intheEnglish-speakingcountries.AstotheWesterners,“doingisthenormalconditionoftheAnglo-Saxon,aseatingisthenormalconditionofChinese”(Smith41).Chinesepeoplearefood-orientedandtheyvirtuallycaneateverythingsuchaspoisonousdogs,dirtyinnardsandrats;Chinaisastarvedcountry,filledwithtragedy,beggars,famine,illness,widespreadpovertyandskinnychildren.Theadditionalsentenceclause“whichwastheusualphraseofgreeting,anytimeofday”magnifiesChinesepeople’sobsessionwithfood.

　　Example9:

　　Sourcetext:那迷离的月光就从窗格子里照进来，照在地上，成为朦

　　胧的白玉古钱的图案。(赤地之恋

　　10)

　　Targettext:Moonlightcominginthroughthecarvedlatticedwindowfellonthestone-pavedfloorinlittlepatternslikeoldcoinsofwhitejade,round,withasquareholeinthemiddle.(NakedEarth8)

　　Example10:Sourcetext:怪不得是红白喜事两用的音乐。(怨女

　　355)3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1Targettext:Nowonderthesamemusicwasusedinboth“redandwhite

　　weddings”—

　　“whitewedding”beingeuphemismforfuneral.

　　(TheRougeoftheNorth91)IntheWesterners’

　　minds,Chinesecustomsarebizarre,uncivilizedanddegraded.AsPeterConnhasmentioned,“thecustomsthatChinesepeoplekeepaholeinthemiddleofacoin,theyusewhiteforcondolences,theycountagesinastrangeway,theyremoveshoesattheentranceofadoor,allbecomethelaughing-stockfortheWesternersandevidenceof13Chinesepeoplebeingweirdandamusing”.○ZhangAilingintentionallyexpandedthetargetedtexttoincludetheexplanatoryphrases“withasquareholeinthemiddle”and“whiteweddingbeingeuphemismforfuneral”tomagnifythebizarrenessofChinesecustoms.

　　ZhangAilingaddedalotofredundantinformationsuchasdislikeofdaughters,superstition,filialpiety,superfluousrulesofcourtesy,opium-smoking,foot-binding,obsessionwithfoodandbizarrecustomstomagnifythenegativeaspectsofChineseculture.AllthesemagnifydefectsinChinesecharacterssuchasirrational,depraved,ridiculous,deceitful,barbarousandfatuous.Therefore,ZhangAilingconstructedChinesepeopleasapopulationofdegeneratetypes,confirmedWesternculturalprestige,andrationalizedtheirconquestandcolonization,whichevidentlysuggestshertendencytoself-orientalization.

　　3.1.3RidiculingandMarginalizingChinesePeoplebyRewriting

　　ZhangAilingmanipulatedtheoriginalChineseversiontoridiculeandmarginalizeChinesepeople,whichcanbefoundinthetranslatedversionofthefiction“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”.IttellsastoryaboutonedaylifeofaChinesefemaleservantcalledAXiao阿小.ThenameAXiaowasrewrittenintoAhNée.NéeoriginatesfromFrench,whichisusedafterthenameofamarriedwomanandbeforeherfather’sfamilyname.Infact,itisnonameatall,whichimpliesthatChinesewomenhavelittlestatus.Intermsoflanguageandpsychology,theChinesecharacterissubmissiveandmarginal.Thetitleofthenovel“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”

　　wasalteredinto“Shame,Amah!”,

　　whichwasadaptedfromtheutterancemadebyMr.Schacht:“‘Shame,Amah!’

　　waggingafingerather,‘Neverhavethenumbersright’”(95).ThefactthatAhNéecouldnotimparttheoriginalinformationaccuratelysuggeststhatChinesepeopleareintellectualmuddled.IntheWesterners’minds,“accuracyisabhorrenttotheOrientalmind.4Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.2Wantofaccuracy,whicheasilydegeneratesintountruthfulness,isinfactthemaincharacteristicoftheOrientalmind”(Said38).Disregardofaccuracyis“anannoyance”totheWesterners,whoattachgreatimportancetoexactnessandprecision(Smith49).TheoriginaltitleconveystheimageofaChinesemaidinasuffocatingautumn.However,therewrittentitlenotonlyblotsouttheimagerybutalsoexpressesthatZhangAilingridiculedChinesepeopleinthetoneoftheWesterners.

　　ZhangAilingmanipulatednotonlytranslationofthetitle,butalsoofthedetailstoconformtotheWesterners’prototypeimageofChinesepeople.Inthesourcetext,AhNée’shusbandandsonareinShanghai.However,inthetargetEnglishtextthedetailswererewritten.TheChinesefemaleAhNéedelineatedin“Shame,Amah!”extricatesherselffromtheshacklesoffeudalproprietiesandunscrupulouslyhasaloverinShanghaidespitethefactthatherhusbandlaborsinAustralia.ByZhangAiling’srewriting,anindustriousandkind-heartedChinesewomanwasalteredtobeshrewd,dissipatedanddishonorableinconformitywiththeOccidentals’utopianfantasiesabouttheOrientalfemales.AstotheWesterners,theOrientalfemalesarecloselyassociatedwithlicentiouspleasuresandexoticflavors.TheyevenholdtheviewthatChinesewomencouldaccomplishnothingbesideshavingsex.ThemisrepresentationofthefaithlessandlicentiousChinesewomanimagebyZhangAilinginherself-translatedversionconsolidatestheWesterners’preexistednotionsofChinesewomen.Inproducingthearchetype,translationisintertwinedwithculturalhegemonyandtranslators’respectfulordisdainfulattitudestowardsculturaldifferences.TheChinesefemaleimageswhichpreexistintheOccidentals’

　　mindsareintimatelyassociatedwiththemarginalizedandinferiorstatusofChineseculture.Inotherwords,Chinesewomenimagesareperceivedtobetypicalmanifestationsofdepraved,passive,ignorant,humbleandbackwardqualitiesinChineseculture.Infact,theconstructionofChinesewomenimagesdisclosetheWesterners’hiddenpurposeofjustifyingculturalinfiltrationandculturalinvasioninflicteduponChinabytheWesterncountries.3.2ConfirmingUniversalityoftheWesternCulturebyTransposition

　　Translationinvolvesdealingwithculturaldifferences,namelywhethertomanifestortocoverupthem.ZhangAilingchosetodisplayorevenmagnifythenegativeaspectsof41Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.2Chineseculture.AsfortheotheraspectsofculturaldifferencesbetweenChinaandtheWesterncountries,sheputmuchemphasisontheWesternreaders,andusedthereceivingaudience’shabitualwayofexpressiontopresenttheoriginalcontentwiththepurposeofincreasingreadability.However,theuniquevalueofChineseculturecouldbeobliterated.TheWesternreadersmistakenlybelievethattheirthinkingpatterns,valuesystemsandbeliefsareuniversal,andexperienceasenseofidentificationwiththeirownculturefromexaminingthecultural“Other”.ZhangAilingusedthetranslationmethodoftranspositiontoconfirmuniversalityoftheWesternculture.Transpositionis“ageneraltermusedbyHervey&HigginstodescribethevariousdegreesofdeparturefromliteraltranslationthatonemayresorttointheprocessoftransferringthecontentsofaSTintothecontextofatargetculture”(ShuttleworthandCowie49).Therefore,transpositionisanalternativemethodtotranslate,whichsuggeststranslators’

　　allegiancetothetargetcultureandtheireffortstosatisfytheimpliedreaderswithstorieswhichdemandaminimumreadingexertion.InZhangAiling’scase,theapplicationofthistranslationmethodremovedtheobstaclesoftheWesternreaders’understandingbroughtbyculturaldifferences.However,theculturalconnotationsandaestheticmeaningcouldbelost;worsestill,theoriginalculturalimagerycouldbedistorted,andtheWesterners’beliefsandvaluesystemcouldbeconfirmedandconsolidated.

　　Example1:Sourcetext:酱黄大水缸上面描出淡黄龙。(桂花蒸

　　阿小悲秋

　　168)Targettext:Thebigbrownwaterjarembossedwithpaleyellowdragons.(“Shame,Amah!”93)InChineseculture,“龙”isakindofmiraculousanimalandasymbolofmagnificence,nobilityandgracefulness.Astoemperors,“龙”standsforunconquerablepowerandimperialauthority;theyareusedtoregardingthemselvesas“龙”;andtheirutensilsareusuallydecoratedwith“龙”.Astoordinarypeople,itisauspiciousandhonorable.Chinesepeopletakegreatdelightinencounterswith“龙”.Forthousandsofyears,“龙”

　　hasactuallypenetratedintoeveryaspectofChinesesociety,andbecomethecrystallizationandaccumulationofChineseculture.ForeverydescendantofYanDiandHuangDi,“龙”isasymbol,astateofmindandadeepattachmentbetweenfleshandblood.Titlessuchasthe42

篇五：自我东方化的表现

　　“自我东方化”、中国的文化符号与文化传播

　　“自我东方化”、中国的文化符号与文化传播

　　摘

　　要：在本文中，我们分析了“自我东方化”的内涵以及对中国人自我文化认同产生的影响。在选择中华文化的文化符号时，需要处理好传统文化与当代文化的关系，体现民族性、代表性，文化传播过程中应该注重对文化符号内涵的解析与深层挖掘符号的意义。如何将文化“有形化”，从日本动漫和《功夫熊猫》等可以得到一些启示。

　　关键词：自我东方化;文化符号;有形文化;孔子学院

　　美国学者阿里夫·德里克在《中国历史与东方主义问题》中认为“欧美人眼中的亚洲如何融入亚洲人的自我形象之中，这最终是与‘西方’思想本身的影响分不开的”，作者一针见血地指出需要对亚洲“传统”的观念详加审视，这种传统是亚洲人与欧洲人接触的产物而非先决条件，是“发明出来的传统”。“自我东方化”（self-orientalization）的概念源自于“东方化”，殖民主义理论学家爱德华·W·萨义德在《东方学》一书中把东方变成“想象的地域”，认为亚洲是战败的，遥远的，存在于欧洲的注视之中，无法表述自己而需要被他人表述。欧洲“东方化东方”最终影响了亚洲对于自我传统的选择，并且通过西方的青睐强化了这种对所选择传统的认同。

　　“自我东方化”的过程在林语堂身上得到淋漓尽致的体现。20世纪上半叶中国的积贫积弱制约着知识分子的文化取向，“语丝”时期的林语堂极力提倡欧化，激烈批判国民劣根性，他的主张与梁启超“新民说”、陈独秀“新青年”等一样，背后是对传统的自卑。可是一旦面对外国人，这种自卑心理便以另一种形式表现出来。1936年出国以后，林语堂在一系列英文著作中大谈中国传统，对外国人讲中国文化，成了西方人眼中的东方哲人。曾经强烈反对的“中庸”思想，在西方人面前也得多多美化。主张“欧化”的林语堂在西方人面前成为了中国传统的捍卫者与宣扬者，这也许是在中西强弱对比的落差中产生的自卑与自恋的两位一体。我们认为，在其身上体现出来这种后期对传统的强烈认同，其实是西方强势话语凌驾于中国弱势话语的情况下中国弱势话语的反弹之体现。

　　当前，孔子学院、孔子课堂在海外的发展如火如荼，方兴未艾。孔子学院的1建立，是受到德国歌德学院、法国的法语联盟、西班牙塞万提斯学院等机构的启发，在国家外汇储备超丰厚的大背景下，以语言文化为依托，向海外输出软实力，展开民间外交工作，从而在国际舞台上提升国家形象（张宽，20XX）。但是在文化传播的过程中存在一些隐忧，在文化符号的选择中存在自我矮化等实际问题。张宽教授指出，孔子学院的活动在不自觉中有可能适应并强化了后殖民批评所说的“东方主义”模式，“中国形象在西方的变化只是折射了西方特定时期的社会能量，西方有什么样的社会需要，就会产生出、制造出什么样的中国形象”。张宽教授在国外所见某孔子学院为当地中小学制作的“中国文化百宝箱”，从罗盘、中国结、团扇到陀螺，包含的几乎全是“自我异国情调化，自我东方化”的物件。孔子学院在海外打造的中国形象，往往较少表现近代以来中国现代化建设的成就。一些对外汉语教材也千篇一律钻入“洋男华女”的模式，生产并强化着殖民话语所认定的东西方权利性别关系。

　　一、文化符号与传播

　　文化符号的选择需要符合五点要求：（1）体现民族特色;（2）具有一定代表性;（3）具有影响力;（4）体现民族精神;（5）注重对文化符号意义内涵的解析。美国《新闻周刊》根据美国、加拿大、英国等国家的网民投票，评选出进入21世纪以来世界最具影响力的十二大文化国家以及这十二个国家的二十个形象符号，其中中国的文化符号为汉语、北京故宫、长城、孔子、道教、丝绸、针灸、瓷器等;美国的文化符号为华尔街、百老汇、好莱坞、硅谷、哈佛大学等;中;日本的文化符号为菊与刀、武士道、樱花、索尼、新干线文化等;法国的文化符号为法语、埃菲尔铁塔、卢浮宫、路易威登、启蒙主义、香奈儿等。对比这些文化符号可以发现中国的文化符号几乎都是古代中国所取得的艺术文化成就;而美国的现代科技、金融、影视，法国的建筑、品牌、思想，日本的文化、技术、民族精神都是存在于现实生活中的活的文化。从中我们应该反思，西方世界对中国文化的看法与中国传达出的国家形象可以说是镜像的关系，肩负文化传播重任的孔院如何向世界展示一个现代的中国的确值得多加揣摩。如果我们说“洋男华女”的模式出现在文艺作品中无可厚非，那在体现国家意志与意识形态的汉语教材中出现性别模式的固见，将对国家文化形象造成损害。20世纪初期，西方人规划的世界秩序在政治、经济、文化上同时向非西方世界推进，加入现代化进程的亚洲国家，2在被迫接受西方殖民主义、帝国主义政治、经济秩序后，也在文化上主动接受了西方现代的世界观念秩序;21世纪的中国在国际舞台上逐渐拥有了政治、经济话语权，在文化上也应该开始自我批判与改造，增加国家现代性的自我认同感，而不是认同他人眼中的东方文化。而近现代中国人正是借助于从西方这面他者之镜获取“自我映像”，来进行自我认同与想象的。也就是说，中国的自我认同与想象正是不断从“虚幻的他者镜像中完成自我的身份认同”（苏明，20XX）。

　　二、传统文化与当代文化的关系

　　文化继承是“扬弃”的自我能动过程。爱德华·萨义德在《文化与帝国主义》中指出了“文化”的两个含义。首先，文化指描述、交流和再现的艺术等相对独立于经济、社会和政治领域，并且通常以审美方式存在的实践，首要目的之一是“愉悦”;第二个含义正如19世纪马修·阿诺德所言是每个社会知识和思想中最优秀的东西。中国传统文化曾以其辉煌夺目的光焰照亮了整个东方并广泛传布于东亚地区，使中国成为东亚文化圈的中心。中国古代文化的外传不仅限于古代科技中的几项发明，还在文学、哲学、艺术方面起到过积极作用。但传统文化主要产生于中国封建社会，经过几千年的兴衰变迁，难免带有时代局限性。在文化传播的过程中，对文化符号的选择要处理好传统文化与当代文化的关系。一些孔子学院的中华文化活动课除了剪纸就是系中国结，要不就是书法、太极拳，且不论代表性如何，这些中华才艺不免有自我矮化、自我女性化的倾向。英国文化人类学家泰勒在《原始文化》一书中指出：“所谓文化或文明乃是包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、习惯以及其他人类作为社会成员而获得的种种能力、习性在内的一种复合整体。”（汪灵灵，20XX）由此观之，孔院开设的文化活动课未免稍显狭隘与陈旧。中国的当代文化绝不是书法、太极拳等等能够简单代表的。

　　三、当代文化的时代性、日常性与有形文化

　　当代文化是融入每个人的日常生活中活的文化，同时也能反应一个时代的特征。以“春运”为例，这是中国特有的现象，同时也是每一个在外地工作、求学的中国人会经历的事情，“春运”作为一个文化现象，体现了中国人浓重的家庭观念和对春节的重视——无论游子身在何方，除夕夜之前都要赶回家与家人团聚，共享天伦之乐。有形文化就是将文化内化到具体事物中反映民族精神、民族心理和民族情感。将有形文化发挥到极致的要数日本的动漫文化，作为日本国家3重要支柱产业之一，日本动漫已经成为代表着日本文化最有价值的出口产品，日本动漫延伸出的衍生产品早已不知不觉渗入我们的生活，无一不彰显着日本文化的影响和魅力。以日本动漫《海贼王》为例，故事中的人物既有崇尚自然、温文尔雅的一面，同时兼具鲁莽任性、刚毅坚强的特质。美国人类学家鲁思·本尼迪克特所著《菊与刀》一书很好地阐述了日本文化矛盾性的文化印记，他们彬彬有礼，却又蛮横、倨傲;他们无比顽固，却又极易适应激烈的革新;他们性格温顺，却又不轻易服从上级的控制。日本人果真如此，他们既有刀的刚硬，又有菊的柔美。（马攀，20XX）体现日本文化精神的动漫不仅有体现菊与刀的矛盾性的《海贼王》，还有体现忍者精神的《火影忍者》，体现民族性格中含蓄温顺一面的《萤火虫之墓》、《千与千寻》等等。当韩剧、日漫、美剧、英剧刮着文化风暴向我们袭来的时候，拥有着灿烂的华夏文明，有着历史悠久、丰富多彩，令每个华夏子孙所骄傲的中国文化却没有能成为世界文化舞台主角的文化产品，这确实是值得深思的现状。

　　四、在世界面前展现独立的中国形象

　　孔子学院本身就是一种文化现象，它不是词汇的概念意义，而是传播中国文化并期望得到对方认同从而实现和谐共存以至于相交相融的过程，也可以说是超越于两种文化的“第三种文化”建设的过程。（汪灵灵，20XX）从这个意义上讲，孔子学院的文化定位应该是“第三种文化”。“第三种文化”的性质决定了孔子学院在开设文化活动的时候应该具有不同的层次，首先应该是“窗口文化”，通过搭建文化窗口，让外国人有兴趣了解中华文化的过去与将来;其次是“门文化”，能让外国人走进来体验中华文化。层次性还应体现在文化内容上，中华文化有传统文化、现代文化，经典文化、大众文化之分。社会文化可以形象化为节日、饮食、民俗、建筑、艺术等方方面面。文化内容不仅包括古典文化、传统文化，更重要的现实组成部分是当代文化，外国人更希望了解的是如今的中国社会文化风貌。如何在世界人民面前展现独立的中国形象，孔子学院需要发挥文化窗口作用。对博大精深的中华文化来说，当文化符号脱离文化内涵而独立呈现的时候，它不过是一个手工或一项活动;当文化符号所蕴含的文化意义通过文化符号呈现时，才能反映中国某一方面的文化。

　　五、结语

　　本文受顾伟列教授讲座（“中华文化走出去：基于汉语国际教育的新路径”）的启发，探讨了“自我东方化”这一概念的含义以及对传播中华文化时文化符号的选择。文化符号应该具有民族代表性，同时要处理好传统文化与当代文化的关系，具有日常性的有形文化往往能起到很好的传播作用。由此我们应该反思孔院的文化活动课该如何开展，以达到在国际舞台上展示一个拥有独立话语权的、现代的、进步的国家形象。

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